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Ancient egypt

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{{AID}} '''Ancient Egypt''' was an African civilization located along the Lower Nile, reaching from the Nile Delta in the north to as far south as Jebel Barkal at the time of its greatest extension (15th century BC). It lasted for three millennia, from ''circa'' 3200 BC to 343 BC, ending when Artaxerxes III, King of the Achaemenid Empire, conquered Egypt. As a civilization based on irrigation it is the quintessential example of a hydraulic empire.Image:Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.01.jpg Khafre's_Pyramid.html" title="Meaning of thumb thumb|right|350px|[[Khafre's Pyramid (Fourth dynasty of Egypt 4th dynasty) and Great Sphinx of Giza (c.2600 BC or perhaps earlier).html" title="Meaning of right|350px|[[Khafre's Pyramid">thumb|right|350px|[[Khafre's Pyramid (Fourth dynasty of Egypt 4th dynasty) and Great Sphinx of Giza (c.2600 BC or perhaps earlier)">right|350px|[[Khafre's Pyramid">thumb|right|350px|[[Khafre's Pyramid (Fourth dynasty of Egypt 4th dynasty) and Great Sphinx of Giza (c.2600 BC or perhaps earlier)

Background
Image:Map Ancient Egypt.png thumb|right|275px|Map of Ancient EgyptModern Egypt is a transcontinental nation located mostly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula lying in Asia. The country has shorelines on the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba. It borders Libya to the west; Sudan to the south; and the Gaza Strip, Palestine (region) Palestine and Israel to the east. The Nile river, around which much of the population of the country clusters, has been the lifeline for Egyptian culture since nomadic hunter-gatherers began living along the Nile during the Pleistocene. Traces of these early peoples appear in the form of artifacts and rock carvings along the terraces of the Nile and in the oases. By about 6000 BC, organized agriculture and large building construction had appeared in the Nile Valley. Between 5500 and 3100 BC, during Egypt's Predynastic Period, small settlements flourished along the Nile. By the late Predynastic Period, just before the first Egyptian dynasty, Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, known as Upper and Lower Egypt. The dividing line was drawn roughly in the area of modern Cairo. The Nile river (''iteru'' in Egyptian Language Ancient Egyptian) flows northward through the centre of Egypt from a southerly point to the Mediterranean Sea Mediterranean. The geologically lower delta region to the north, where the Nile river branches out into several mouths providing a wide, rich area of agricultural land, was known as Lower Egypt. Whereas the geologically higher land upriver to the south, where the river valley is narrow and the fertile land on either side may only be a couple of miles in width, was known as Upper Egypt. The two kingdoms were unified by Narmer in c. 3100 BC, and a series of dynasties ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. The last native dynasty, known as the Thirtieth Dynasty, fell to the Persians in 343 BC. In ancient Egypt, the narrow strip of fertile land which runs alongside the Nile was called Kemet ("the black land", in Egyptian Language Ancient Egyptian ''Kmt''), a reference to the rich, black silt that is deposited there every year by the Nile floodwaters. The ancient Egyptians used this land for growing crops. It was the only land in ancient Egypt that could be farmed. In contrast, the barren desert that bordered the fertile land to the east and west was called Deshret ("the red land", in Egyptian Language Ancient Egyptian ''Dsrt''), c.f. Herodotus: "Egypt is a land of black soil.... We know that Libya is a redder earth" (Histories, 2:12). These deserts separated ancient Egypt from neighbouring civilisations and provided a natural defence against invading armies. They also provided a source of precious metals and semi-precious stones. The vowels within the consonants K-M-T and D-S-R-T are not known with certainty. Coptic language Coptic, however, provides some indication.

People
Many theories have been proposed regarding the origins of early Egyptians, a subject still imbued with controversy today. Controversy over race of Ancient Egyptians has more information about this subject. Egyptian society was a merging of Berbers North and Northeast African as well as Southwest Asian peoples. Modern genetic genealogy genetics reveals {{cite web | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15202071&query_hl=6&itool=pubmed_docsum | accessdate=January 24 | accessyear=2006 }} {{cite web | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12495079 | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} that the Egyptian population today is characterized by Haplogroup#Y chromosome DNA haplogroups paternal lineages common to Berbers North Africans primarily, and to some Near Eastern peoples. Studies based on the Haplogroup#Mitochondrial DNA haplogroups maternal lineages closely links modern Egyptians with people from modern Ethiopia {{cite web .html">Land of Punt Punt, or "Ta Nteru" ("Land of the Gods"), which most Egyptologists locate in the area encompassing the Ethiopian Highlands. A recent bioanthropological study on the dental morphology of ancient Egyptians confirms dental traits most characteristic of Berbers North African and to a lesser extent Southwest Asian populations. The study also establishes biological continuity from the Predynastic Egypt predynastic to the post-pharaonic periods. Among the samples included is skeletal material from the Gallery of Fayum mummy portraits Hawara tombs of Fayum, which was found to most closely resemble the Badarian series of the predynastic {{cite web | title=Who were the Ancient Egyptians? | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16331657&query_hl=16&itool=pubmed_docsum | accessdate=January 24 | accessyear=2006 }}, {{cite web | title=Study traces Egyptiansâ€™ stone-age roots | url=http://www.world-science.net/exclusives/exclusives-nfrm/051217_egypt1.htm | accessdate=January 24 | accessyear=2006 }}. A study based on stature and body proportions suggests that Nilotic or tropical body characteristics were also present in some later groups {{cite web | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?dmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12772210&dopt=Abstract|accessdate=January 27 | accessyear=2006 }} as the Egyptian empire expanded southward. Jean-FranÃ§ois Champollion Champollion the Younger, who deciphered the Rosetta Stone, claimed in ''Expressions et Termes Particuliers'' that ''kmt'' referred to a 'negroid' population. Modern day professional Egyptologists, anthropologists, and linguists, however, overwhelmingly agree that the term referred to the dark soil of the Nile Valley rather than the people, which contrasted with ''dSrt'' or the "red land" of the Sahara desert. In c. 450 BC, Herodotus wrote, "the Colchians are Egyptians... on the fact that they are swarthy (''melanchrÃ´s'') and wooly-haired (''oulothrix'')" (Histories Book 2:104). ''Melanchros'' was also used by Homer to describe the sunburnt complexion of Odysseus (Od. 16.176). Although analyzing the hair of ancient Egyptian Mummy mummies from the Late Middle Kingdom has revealed evidence of a stable diet {{cite web .html">3200 BC show signs of severe anemia and Hematology , mummies from circa hemolitic disorders.html" title="Meaning of url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10091248&itool=iconabstr | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}, mummies from circa , mummies from circa hemolitic disorders">hemolitic disorders {{cite web | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt==Accounting Historians Journal, The: oldest writings, and inventory tags of Egypt, The | url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3657/is_200206/ai_n9107461 | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}. Image:Memnon2.jpg Colossus.html"_title="Meaning of right right|thumb|200px|[[Colossus_of Memnon..html" title="Meaning of thumb|200px|[[Colossus">right|thumb|200px|[[Colossus of Memnon.">thumb|200px|[[Colossus">right|thumb|200px|[[Colossus of Memnon.

History
:''Main article: History of ancient Egypt'' Egyptian culture was remarkably stable and changed little over a period of nearly 3000 years. This includes religion, customs, art expression, architecture and social structure. The history of ancient Egypt proper starts with Egypt as a unified state, which occurred sometime around 3100 BC. Narmer, who unified Upper and Lower Egypt, was the first king; though Archaeology archaeological evidence indicates that a developed Egyptian society existed for a much longer period (see Predynastic Egypt). Along the Nile, in 10th millennium BC, a cereal grain-grinding culture using the earliest type of sickle blades had been replaced by another culture of hunting hunters, fishing fishers, and hunter-gatherer gathering peoples using stone tools. Evidence also indicates human habitation in the southwestern corner of Egypt, near the Sudan border, before 8000 BC. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 8th millennium BC 8000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, eventually forming the Sahara (c.2500 BC), and early tribes naturally migrated to the Nile river where they developed a settled agriculture agricultural Economic system economy and more centralized society (see Nile#History Nile: History). There is evidence of pastoralism and cultivation of cereals in the East Sahara in the 7th millennium BC. By 6000 BC ancient Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and construction constructing large buildings. Mortar (masonry) was in use by 4000 BC. The Predynastic Egypt Predynastic Period continues through this time, variously held to begin with the Naqada culture. Some authorities however place the start of the Predynastic Egypt Predynastic Period earlier, in the Lower Paleolithic. Egypt unified as a single state circa 3100 BC. Egyptian chronology involves assigning beginnings and endings to various dynasties beginning around this time. The conventional Egyptian chronology is the accepted developments during the 20th century, but do not include any of the major revision proposals that have also been made in that time. Even within a single work, often archeologists will offer several possible dates or even several whole chronologies as possibilities. Consequently, there may be discrepancies between dates shown here and in articles on particular rulers. Often there are also several possible spellings of the names. Typically, Egyptologists divide the history of pharaonic civilization using a schedule laid out first by Manetho's ''Aegyptaica'' (History of Egypt). *'''List of pharaohs''': The pharaohs stretch from before 3000 BC to around 30 BC. *'''Dynasties''' (see also: List of Egyptian dynasties): ** Early Dynastic Period of Egypt (1st to 2nd Dynasties; until ca. 27th century BC) ** Old Kingdom (3rd to 6th Dynasties; 27th to 22nd centuries Anno Domini BC) ** First Intermediate Period (7th to 11th Dynasties) ** Middle Kingdom of Egypt (11th to 14th Dynasties; 20th to 17th centuries BC) ** Second Intermediate Period (14th to 17th Dynasties) *** Hyksos (15th to 16th Dynasties) ** New Kingdom of Egypt (18th to 20th Dynasties; 16th to 11th centuries BC) ** Third Intermediate Period (21st to 25th Dynasties; 11th to 7th centuries BC) ** Late Period of Ancient Egypt (26th to 31st Dynasties; 7th century BC to 332 BC) *** Achaemenid Dynasty ** History of Greek and Roman Egypt Graeco-Roman Egypt (332 BC to AD 639) *** Ptolemaic Dynasty *** Roman Empire

Administration and Taxation
For administrative purposes, ancient Egypt was divided into nome (Egypt) nomes (Greek: district; ancient Egyptian: ''sepat''). The division into nomes can be traced back to the Predynastic Period (before 3100 BC), when the nomes originally existed as autonomous city-states. The nomes remained in place for more than three millennia, with the area of the individual nomes and their order of numbering remaining remarkably stable. Under the system that prevailed for most of pharaonic Egypt's history, the country was divided into 42 nomes. Lower Egypt comprised 20 nomes, whilst Upper Egypt was divided into 22 nomes. Each nome was governed by a nomarch, a provincial governor who held regional authority. The position of the nomarch was at times hereditary, at times appointed by the pharaoh. The ancient Egyptian government imposed a number of different taxes upon its people. As there was no known form of currency during that time period, taxes were paid for "in kind" (with produce or work). The Vizier (ancient Egyptian: ''tjaty'') controlled the taxation system through the departments of state. The departments had to report daily on the amount of stock available, and how much was expected in the future. Taxes were paid for depending on a person's craft or duty. Landowners paid their taxes in grain and other produce grown on their property. Craftsmen paid their taxes in the goods that they produced. Hunters and fishermen paid their taxes with produce from the river, marshes, and desert. One person from every household was required to pay a labor tax by doing public work for a few weeks every year, such as digging canals or mining. However, a richer noble could hire a poorer man to do his labor tax.

Language
{{main|Egyptian language}} Ancient Egyptian constitutes an independent branch of the Afro-Asiatic language phylum (linguistics) phylum. Its closest relatives are the Berber languages Berber, Semitic languages Semitic, and Beja language Beja groups of languages. Written records of the Egyptian language have been dated from about 32nd century BC 3200 BC, making it one of the oldest and longest documented languages. Scholars group Egyptian into six major chronological divisions: *'''Archaic Egyptian''' (before 3000 BC) :Consists of inscriptions from the late Predynastic Period Predynastic and Early Dynastic Period Early Dynastic period. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing appears on Naqada II pottery vessels. *'''Old Egyptian''' (3000–2000 BC) :The language of the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period. The Pyramid Texts are the largest body of literature written in this phase of the language. Tomb walls of elite Egyptians from this period also bear autobiographical writings representing Old Egyptian. One of its distinguishing characteristics is the tripling of ideograms, phonograms, and determinatives to indicate the plural. Overall, it does not differ significantly from the next stage. *'''Middle Egyptian''' (2000–1300 BC) :Often dubbed '''Classical Egyptian''', this stage is known from a variety of textual evidence in hieroglyphic and hieratic scripts dated from about the Middle Kingdom. It includes funerary texts inscribed on sarcophagi such as the Coffin Texts; wisdom texts instructing people on how to lead a life that exemplified the ancient Egyptian philosophical worldview (see the Ipuwer papyrus); tales detailing the adventures of a certain individual, for example the The Story of Sinuhe Story of Sinhue; medical and scientific texts such as the Edwin Smith Papyrus and the Ebers papyrus; and poetic texts praising a god or a pharaoh, like the Hymn to the Nile. The Egyptian vernacular already began to change from the written language as evidenced by some Middle Kingdom hieratic texts, but classical Middle Egyptian continued to be written in formal contexts well into the Late Dynastic period (sometimes referred to as Late Middle Egyptian). *'''Late Egyptian''' (1300–700 BC) :Records of this stage appear in the second part of the New Kingdom, considered by many as the "Golden Age" of ancient Egyptian civilization. It contains a rich body of religious and secular literature, comprising such famous examples as the Story of Wenamun and the Instructions of Ani. It was also the language of Ramesside administration. Late Egyptian is not totally distinct from Middle Egyptian, as many "classicisms" appear in historical and literary documents of this phase. However, the difference between Middle and Late Egyptian is greater than that between Middle and Old Egyptian. It's also a better representative than Middle Egyptian of the spoken language in the New Kingdom and beyond. Hieroglyphic orthography saw an enormous expansion of its grapheme graphemic inventory between the Late Dynastic and Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemaic periods. *'''Demotic Egyptian''' (7th century BC–4th century AD) {{main|Demotic Egyptian}} *'''Coptic language Coptic''' (3rd–17th century AD) {{main|Coptic language}}

Writing
For many years, the earliest known hieroglyphic inscription was the Narmer Palette, found during excavations at Hierakonpolis (modern Kawm al-Ahmar) in the 1890s, which has been dated to c.3200 BC. However recent Archaeology archaeological findings reveal that symbols on Gerzean pottery, ''c.''4000 BC, resemble the traditional hieroglyph forms {{fact}}. Also in 1998 a German archeological team under Gunter Dreyer excavating at Abydos, Egypt Abydos (modern Umm el-Qa'ab) uncovered tomb U-j, which belonged to a Predynastic Egypt Predynastic ruler, and they recovered three hundred clay labels inscribed with proto-hieroglyphics dating to the Naqada IIIA period, circa 33rd century BC {{fact}}, {{fact}}. Egyptologists refer to Egyptian writing as '''Egyptian hieroglyph hieroglyphs''', today standing as the world's earliest known writing system. The hieroglyphic script was partly syllabic, partly ideographic. '''Hieratic''' is a cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphs and was first used during the First Dynasty (c. 2925 BC – c. 2775 BC). The term '''Demotic Egyptian Demotic''', in the context of Egypt, came to refer to both the script and the language that followed the Late Ancient Egyptian stage, i.e. from the Nubian Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt 25th dynasty until its marginalization by the Greek Koine in the early centuries AD. After the conquest of Amr ibn al-A'as in the 7th century AD, the Egypt, as evidenced by the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus Edwin Smith and Ebers papyrus Ebers papyri. The roots of the Scientific method#History Scientific method may be traced back to the ancient Egyptians. The ancient Egyptians are also credited with devising the world's earliest known alphabet, decimal system {{cite web .html">Timeline of mathematics mathematical formularizations, in the form of the Moscow and Rhind Mathematical Papyri. An awareness of the golden ratio seems to be reflected in many constructions, such as the Egyptian pyramids. The art of glass making is of very ancient origin with the Egyptians, as is evident from the glass jars, figures and ornaments discovered in the tombs. The paintings on the tombs have been interpreted as descriptive of the process of glass blowing. These illustrations representing smiths blowing their fires by means of reeds tipped with clay. Therefore it can be concluded that glass-blowing is apparently of Egyptian origin.

Timeline
''(All dates are approximate.)''

Predynastic
''See main article and timeline: Predynastic Egypt.'' *3500 BC: Senet, world's oldest (confirmed) board game *3500 BC: Faience, world's earliest known earthenware

Dynastic
Image:Pyramide_Kheops.JPG The_Great Pyramid of Giza.html" title="Meaning of thumb thumb|200px|[[The Great Pyramid of Giza..html" title="Meaning of 200px|[[The Great Pyramid of Giza">thumb|200px|[[The Great Pyramid of Giza.">200px|[[The Great Pyramid of Giza">thumb|200px|[[The Great Pyramid of Giza. Image:Egyptian Glass.jpg thumb|200px|Egypt was first to create glass objects. {{3d_glasses}} *33rd century BC 3300 BC: Bronze works (see Bronze Age#Near East Bronze Age Bronze Age) *3200 BC: Egyptian hieroglyphs fully developed (see First dynasty of Egypt) *3200 BC: Narmer Palette, world's earliest known historical document *3100 BC: Decimal Decimal system, {{cite web | title=Overview of Egyptian Mathematics | url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Egyptian_mathematics.html | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}, world's earliest (confirmed) use *3100 BC: Wine cellars, world's earliest known {{cite web | title=Wine in Ancient Egypt | url=http://www.touregypt.net/magazine/mag11012000/magf2.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} *3100 BC: Mining, Sinai Peninsula#History Sinai Peninsula *3100 BC 3050 BC: Shipbuilding in Abydos, Egypt Abydos, {{cite web | title=Francesco Raffaele Egyptology News | url=http://xoomer.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/news.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} *3000 BC: Exports from Nile to Palestine and Levant: wine (see Narmer) *3000 BC: Copper plumbing (see Copper#History Copper: History) *3000 BC: Papyrus, world's earliest known paper *3000 BC: History of medicine#Egyptian medicine Medical Institutions *2900 BC: possible steel: carbon-containing iron, {{cite web | title=Egypt: Science and chemistry in ancient Egypt | url=http://www.touregypt.net/science.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} *2700 BC: Surgery#History of surgery Surgery, world's earliest known *2700 BC: precision Surveying#Origins Surveying *2700 BC: Egyptian hieroglyph#Script Uniliteral signs, forming basis of world's History of alphabets earliest known alphabet *2600 BC: Great Sphinx of Giza Sphinx, still today the world's largest single-stone statue *2600 BC 2600s–2500 BC: Shipping expeditions: Sneferu King Sneferu and Sahure#History Pharaoh Sahure. See also {{cite web | title=MSIChicago : Exhibits : Ships Through the Ages | url=http://www.msichicago.org/exhibit/ships/ | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}, {{cite web | title=The Ancient Egyptian Navy | url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/navy.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}. *2600 BC: Barge transportation, stone blocks (see Egyptian pyramids#Construction techniques Egyptian pyramids: Construction) *2600 BC: Pyramid of Djoser, world's earliest known large-scale stone building *2600 BC: Menkaure's Pyramid & Red Pyramid, world's earliest known works of carved granite *2600 BC: Red Pyramid, world's earliest known "true" smooth-sided pyramid; solid granite work *2600 BC 2580 BC: Great Pyramid of Giza, the World's tallest structures world's tallest structure until 1300 AD 1300 *2500 BC: Beekeeping, {{cite web | title=apiary2 | url=http://www.vftn.org/projects/bryant/navbar_pages/apiary_2.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} *2400 BC: Egyptian calendar Astronomical Calendar, used even in the Middle Ages for its mathematics mathematical regularity *2200 BC: Beer, {{cite web | title=Egypt: Tour Egypt Monthly: Anceint Egyptian Alcohol and Beer | url=http://www.touregypt.net/magazine/mag04012001/magf2.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} *1900 BC 1860 BC: possible Suez Canal Nile-Red Sea Canal (Twelfth dynasty of Egypt) *1800 BC: History of the alphabet Alphabet, world's oldest known *1800 BC: Timeline of mathematics Berlin Mathematical Papyrus, {{fact}}, 2nd order algebraic equations *1800 BC: Moscow Papyrus Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, generalized formula for volume of frustum *1650s BC 1650 BC: Rhind Mathematical Papyrus: geometry, cotangent analogue, algebraic equations, arithmetic series, geometric series *[[1600 .369}}) *1160s BC 1160 BC: Turin papyrus, world's earliest known geology geologic and topographic map *1000 BC: Tar Petroleum tar used in Mummy mummification{{fact}} *500s BC 5th–400s BC 4th century BC (or perhaps earlier): battle games ''petteia'' and ''seega''; possible precursors to Chess (see Origins of chess)

Open problems
{{main|Unsolved problems in Egyptology}} There is a question as to the sophistication of ancient Egyptian technology, and there are several open problems concerning real and alleged ancient Egyptian achievements. Certain artifacts and records do not fit with conventional technological development systems. It is not known why there is no neat progression to an Egyptian Iron Age nor why the historical record shows the Egyptians taking so long to begin using iron. It is unknown how the Egyptians shaped and worked granite. The exact date the Egyptians started producing glass is debated. Some question whether the Egyptians were capable of long distance navigation in their boats and when they became knowledgeable sailors. It is contentiously disputed as to whether or not the Egyptians had some understanding of electricity and if the Egyptians used engines or Baghdad Battery batteries. The Dendera light relief at Dendera is interpreted in various ways by scholars. The topic of the Saqqara Bird is controversial, as is the extent of the Egyptians' understanding of aerodynamics. It is unknown for certain if the Egyptians had kite flying kites or gliders. Beekeeping is known to have been particularly well developed in Egypt, as accounts are given by several Ancient Rome Roman writers — Virgil, Gaius Julius Hyginus, Marcus Terentius Varro Varro and Columella. It is unknown whether Egyptian beekeeping developed independently or as an import from Southern Asia.

See also
{{commonscat|Ancient Egypt}}{{portal}} *Art of Ancient Egypt *Ancient Egyptian architecture Architecture of Ancient Egypt *Egyptian mythology Egyptian Mythology *Egyptology *History of Egypt *List of Ancient Egyptians *List of Ancient Egyptian sites List of Ancient Egyptian Sites *List of Pharaohs *Unsolved problems in Egyptology

Further reading
* Clayton, A. (1994) "''Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign by Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt.''" London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05074-0. * Lehner, M. (1997) "''The Complete Pyramids.''" London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-50-005084-8.

External links

- Ancient Egypt - maintained by the British Museum, this site provides a useful introduction to Ancient Egypt for older children and young adolescents
- Ancient Egypt and Egyptians articles and resources from About Archaeology
- BBC History: Egyptians - provides a reliable general overview and further links
- Ancient Egyptian History - A comprehensive & consise educational website focusing on the basic and the advanced in all aspects of Ancient Egypt
- Ancientneareast.net: Ancient Egypt - provides a comprehensive listing of resources relating to the archaeology of Ancient Egypt
- Egyptology Resources - maintained by Dr Nigel Strudwick, offers one reliable guide to online documentation of Ancient Egypt
- The Theban Mapping Project - although focusing on the Theban region (modern Luxor), this site holds much of general interest relating to Ancient Egypt
- Ancient Civilizations - Ancient Egypt children's site

Notes
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