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Antarctica
*** Shopping-Tip: Antarctica
{{featured article}}
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'''Antarctica'''
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Image:Flag of Antarctica.svg center|100px
Image:LocationAntarctica.png 250px|Location of Antarctica
|-
| '''Area''' || 14,000,000 km² (280,000 km² ice-free, 13,720,000 km² ice-covered)
|-
| '''Population''' || ~1,000 (none permanent)
|-
| '''Government''' || None, governed by the
Antarctic Treaty System
|-
| '''Partial Territorial claims''' || {{ARG}}
{{AUS}}
{{CHL}}
{{FRA}}
{{NZL}}
{{NOR}}
{{GBR}}
|-
| '''Internet
Top-level domain TLD''' ||
.aq
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| '''Calling Code''' || +672
|}
'''Antarctica''' is a
continent encompassing the southern extremity of
Earth, and containing the
Earth's
South Pole. It is surrounded by the
Southern Ocean and divided in two by the
Transantarctic Mountains. It is considered to be the coldest, driest, windiest, and highest (on average) continent on
Earth.
Ice covers 98% of the continent; its 14 million km² make it the fifth largest continent and the world's largest
desert. There are no permanent human residents and only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there, including
penguins,
fur seals,
lichens, and hundreds of types of
algae. The name "Antarctica" comes from the
Greek language Greek ''antarktikos'', "opposite the
Arctic."
[Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon '' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=%239514 "antarktikos"]. Retrieved February 12, 2006.])
Although myths and speculation about a ''
Terra Australis'' ("Southern Land") go back to antiquity, the first commonly accepted sighting of the continent occurred in 1820 by the
Russian expedition of
Mikhail Lazarev and
Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen. The continent was largely neglected in the 19th century because of its hostile environment, lack of efficient resources, and its isolated location.
Antarctica is not under the political sovereignty of any nation, although seven countries (
Argentina,
Australia,
Chile,
France,
Norway,
New Zealand and the
United Kingdom) maintain territorial claims. Most other countries do not recognize these claims, and the claims of Argentina, Chile and the United Kingdom all overlap. Human activity on the continent is regulated by the
Antarctic Treaty System Antarctic Treaty, which was signed in 1959 by 12 countries and prohibits any military activity, supports scientific research, and protects the continent's
ecozone. Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4000 scientists of many different nationalities and research interests.
Exploration
{{main|History of Antarctica}}
Antarctica has no indigenous population. It was entirely unknown and unexplored until the
19th century.
Image:Orpheus-Gate-2.jpg 210px|thumb|right|Ice cap. Note that although this and the other pictures on this page show interesting features, a "typical" picture of Antarctica would show nothing but a flat white snowfield
Image:Port-Lockroy.jpg Port_Lockroy.html" title="Meaning of 210px 210px|thumb|right|[[Port Lockroy Museum.html" title="Meaning of thumb|right|[[Port Lockroy">210px|thumb|right|[[Port Lockroy Museum">thumb|right|[[Port Lockroy">210px|thumb|right|[[Port Lockroy Museum
Belief in the existence of a ''Terra Australis''—a vast continent located in the far south of the globe to "balance" out the northern lands of Europe, Asia and north Africa—had existed since
Ptolemy suggested in order to preserve
symmetry of
landmass in the world. Even in the late 17th century, after explorers had found that
South America and
Australia were not part of "Antarctica," geographers believed that the continent was much larger than its actual size.
European maps continued to show this land until
Captain James Cook and the crews of his expedition's ships, ''
HMS Resolution (Cook) Resolution'' and ''
HMS Adventure (1771) Adventure'', crossed the
Antarctic Circle on
January 17,
1773 and again in 1774.
[The Mariners' Museum [http://www.mariner.org/educationalad/ageofex/cook.php ''Age of Exploration - James Cook'']. Retrieved February 12, 2006.]
The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica cannot be accurately attributed to one single person. It can, however, be narrowed down to three individuals. According to various organizations (the
National Science Foundation,
[National Science Foundation. [http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/1997/antpanel/antpan05.pdf History of Antarctica] Retrieved February 6, 2006.] NASA,
[NASA, U.S. Government [http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/antarctica/background/NSF/palmer.html Palmer biography] Retrieved February 6, 2006.] the
University of California, San Diego,
[University of California, San Diego [http://arcane.ucsd.edu/pstat.html Palmer Station] Retrieved February 5, 2006.] and other sources
[South-Pole [http://www.south-pole.com/p0000052.htm An Antarctic Time Line : 1519 - 1959]. Retrieved February 12, 2006][Polar Radar for Ice Sheet Measurements. [http://ku-prism.org/polarscientist/timeline/antarcticexplorers1800.html Antarctic Explorers Timeline: Early 1800s]. Retrieved February 12, 2006.]), three men all sighted Antarctica in 1820:
Fabian von Bellingshausen (a captain in the Russian Imperial Navy),
Edward Bransfield (a captain in the British Navy), and
Nathaniel Palmer (an American sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut).
Fabian von Bellingshausen Bellingshausen supposedly saw Antarctica on
January 27,
1820, three days before
Edward Bransfield Bransfield sighted land, and ten months before
Nathaniel Palmer Palmer did so in November 1820. It is certain that on that day the expedition led by
Fabian von Bellingshausen and
Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev on two ships reached a point within 32 km (20 miles) of the Antarctic mainland and saw ice fields there.
In 1841, explorer
James Clark Ross sailed through what is now known as the
Ross Sea and discovered
Ross Island. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the
Ross Ice Shelf.
Mount Erebus and
Mount Terror (Antarctica) Mount Terror are named after two ships from his expedition: ''
HMS Erebus (1826) HMS Erebus'' and ''
HMS Terror (1813) HMS Terror''.
[[http://www.south-pole.com/p0000081.htm James Clark Ross] South-Pole - Exploring Antarctica. Retrieved February 12, 2006.]
Image:Shackleton expedition.jpg Ernest Shackleton.html" title="Meaning of left left|thumb|210px|''The Endurance'' at night during [[Ernest Shackleton's
Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition in 1914..html" title="Meaning of thumb|210px|''The Endurance'' at night during [[Ernest Shackleton">left|thumb|210px|''The Endurance'' at night during [[Ernest Shackleton's
Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition in 1914.">thumb|210px|''The Endurance'' at night during [[Ernest Shackleton">left|thumb|210px|''The Endurance'' at night during [[Ernest Shackleton's
Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition in 1914.
During an
expedition by
Ernest Shackleton, parties led by
T. W. Edgeworth David became the first to climb
Mount Erebus and to reach the
South Magnetic Pole.
[Australian Antarctic Division. [http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=6660 ''Tannatt William Edgeworth David''] Retrieved February 7, 2006.] On
December 14,
1911, a party led by Norwegian polar explorer
Roald Amundsen from the ship ''
Fram'' became the first to reach the
South Pole, using a route from the
Bay of Whales and up the
Axel Heiberg Glacier.
[South-pole [http://www.south-pole.com/p0000101.htm ''Roald Amundsen''] South-Pole - Exploring Antarctica. Retrieved February 9, 2006.]
After
Robert Falcon Scott's journey,
Richard Evelyn Byrd led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is credited with implementing mechanized land transport and conducting extensive geological and biological research.
[70South. [http://www.70south.com/resources/antarctic-history/explorers/richardbyrd/ Richard Byrd]. Retrieved February 12, 2006.] However, it was not until
October 31,
1956 that anyone set foot on the South Pole again; on that day a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral
George Dufek successfully landed there in an aircraft.
[U.S. Navy. [http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/datesoct.htm Dates in American Naval History: October]. Retrieved February 12, 2006.]
Geography
{{Main|Geography of Antarctica}}
Image:Antarctica satellite orthographic.jpg thumb|150px|left|A satellite composite image of Antarctica
The continent of Antarctica is located mostly south of the
Antarctic Circle, surrounded by the
Southern Ocean. Antarctica is the southernmost
land mass on Earth comprising more than 14 million km² making it the 5th largest continent. The coastline measures 17,968 km. Physically, Antarctica is divided in two by the
Transantarctic Mountains close to the neck between the
Ross Sea and the
Weddell Sea. The portion of the
continent west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called
Western Antarctica and the remainder
Eastern Antarctica, because they correspond roughly to the Eastern and Western Hemispheres relative to the
Greenwich meridian.
Image:Maritime-Antarctica.jpg 210px|thumb|right|Maritime Antarctica
About 98% of Antarctica is covered by the
Antarctic ice sheet. The
ice sheet is, on average, 2.5 kilometers thick. Despite its zero rainfall in some areas, the continent has approximately 90% of the world's
fresh water - in the form of ice.
[Central Intelligence Agency [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ay.html Factbook] Retrieved February 6, 2006.] Western Antarctica is covered by the
West Antarctic Ice Sheet. The West Antarctic Ice Sheet has been of recent concern because of the possibility, real though small, of its collapse. If it does break down,
Sea level change ocean levels would rise by several meters in a relatively short period of time.
Image:Mt erebus.jpg Mt._Erebus.html" title="Meaning of thumb thumb|left|[[Mt. Erebus, an active volcano on
Ross Island..html" title="Meaning of left|[[Mt. Erebus">thumb|left|[[Mt. Erebus, an active volcano on
Ross Island.">left|[[Mt. Erebus">thumb|left|[[Mt. Erebus, an active volcano on
Ross Island.
Vinson Massif, the highest peak in Antarctica at 4,892 meters, is located in the
Ellsworth Mountains. Although Antarctica is home to many volcanoes, only
Deception Island and
Mt. Erebus are active. Mount Erebus, located in
Ross Island, is the southernmost active volcano on Earth. Minor eruptions are frequent and lava flow has been observed in recent years. Other dormant volcanoes may potentially be active.
[British Antarctic Survey. [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/About_Antarctica/Rock/Volcanoes.html Volcanoes]. Retrieved February 13, 2006.] In 2004, an underwater volcano was found in the
Antarctic Peninsula by American and Canadian researchers. Recent evidence shows this unnamed volcano may be active.
[National Science Foundation. [http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100385 Scientists Discover Undersea Volcano Off Antarctica]. Retrieved February 13, 2006]
Antarctica is home to more than 70
lakes that lie thousands of metres under the surface of the continental ice sheet, including one under the South Pole itself.
Lake Vostok, discovered beneath
Russia's
Vostok Station in 1996, is the largest of these
subglacial lakes. It is believed that the lake has been sealed off for 35 million years. There is some evidence that Vostok's waters may contain
microorganism microbial life. Due to the lake's similarity to
Europa, a moon of
Jupiter, confirming that life can survive in Lake Vostok might strengthen the argument for the presence of life on Europa.
[National Science Foundation [http://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/news/02/fslakevostok.htm Lake Vostok] Retrieved February 6, 2006.][NASA [http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/stories/europa_vostok_0899.html Lake Vostok may teach us about Europa] Retrieved February 4, 2006.]
{{seealso|Extreme points of Antarctica|Antarctic territories}}
Geology
Geological history and paleontology
More than 170 million years ago (Mya), Antarctica was part of the
supercontinent Gondwana. Over time Gondwana broke apart and Antarctica as we know it today was formed around 25 Mya.
;Paleozoic era (540-250 Mya)
Image:Survey-Route.jpg 210px|thumb|right|Survey route
During the Cambrian period Gondwana had a mild climate. West Antarctica was partially in the northern hemisphere, and during this period large deposits of
sandstones,
limestones and
shales were deposited. East Antarctica was at the equator, where sea-floor
invertebrates and
trilobites flourished in the tropical seas. By the start of the Devonian period (416 Mya) Gondwana was in more southern latitudes and the climate was cooler, though fossils of land plants are known from this time.
Sand and
silts were laid down in what is now the
Ellsworth Mountains Ellsworth,
Horlick Mountains Horlick and
Pensacola Mountains.
Glaciation began at the end of the Devonian period (360 Mya) as Gondwana became centered around the
South Pole and the climate cooled, though flora remained. During the Permian period the plant life became dominated by fern-like plants such as
Glossopteris which grew in swamps. Over time these swamps became deposits of coal in the
Transantarctic Mountains. Towards the end of the Permian period continued warming led to a dry, hot climate over much of Gondwana.
[B. Stonehouse, editor, ''Encyclopedia of Antarctica and the Southern Oceans'', Wiley, New York, 2002. ISBN 0-471-98665-8.]
;Mesozoic era (250-65 Mya)
As a result of continued warming, the polar ice caps melted and much of Gondwana became a desert. In East Antarctica the
seed fern became established, and large amounts of sandstones and shales were laid down at this time. The Antarctic Peninsula began to form during the Jurassic period (206-146 Mya), as islands gradually rising out of the ocean.
Ginkgo trees and
cycads were plentiful during this period, as were reptiles such as
lystrosaurus. In West Antarctica
conifer forests dominated through the entire Cretaceous period (146-65 Mya), though
Nothofagus Southern beech began to take over at the end of this period.
Ammonites were common in the seas around Antarctica, and dinosaurs were also present, though only two Antarctic dinosaur species (''
Cryolophosaurus'' and ''
Antarctopelta'') have been described to date. It was during this period that Gondwana began to break up.
;Gondwana breakup (160-23 Mya)
Africa separated from Antarctica around 160 Mya followed by
India in the early Cretaceous (about 125 Mya). About 65 Mya, Antarctica (then still connected to
Australia) still had a tropical to subtropical climate, complete with a
marsupial fauna, but by about 40 Mya
Australia-
New Guinea had separated from Antarctica and the first ice appeared. At around 23 Mya, due to the opening of the
Drake Passage between Antarctica and
South America and the resulting
Antarctic Circumpolar Current, the ice spread quickly, displacing the forests that then covered the continent. Since about 15 Mya, the continent has been mostly covered with ice.
[''Antarctica: An Encyclopedia from Abbot Ice Shelf to Zooplankton'', Firefly, 2002. ISBN 1-55297-590-8.]
Geology of present-day Antarctica
Image:AntarcticaRockSurface.jpg thumb|300px|Antarctica without its ice-shield. This map does not consider that the sea level would rise because of the melted ice, nor that the landmass would rise, too, on a middle to long-term scale as the weight of the ice would not depress the landmass any longer.
The geological study of Antarctica has been greatly hindered by the fact that nearly all of the continent is permanently covered with a thick layer of ice. However, newer techniques such as
remote sensing have begun to reveal the structures beneath the ice.
Without the ice-shield, the continent's shape would look fully different from how it is presented on common maps. West Antarctica would resolve into three major parts: the Antarctic peninsula, Marie Byrd Land, and Vinson massif. East Antarctica would consist in a landmass with huge bays (e.g.
Aurora Subglacial Basin and
Wilkes Subglacial Basin) and fjords (e.g. at the location of
Amery Glacier and around the South pole). The East Antarctic landmass would be littered with lakes and
endorheic seas, parts of their grounds being far lower than sea level. East Antarctica would look somewhat like
Canada or
Finland nowadays.
West Antarctica closely resembles the
Andes of
South America .
[B. Stonehouse, editor, ''Encyclopedia of Antarctica and the Southern Oceans'', Wiley, New York, 2002. ISBN 0-471-98665-8.] The
Antarctic Peninsula was formed by uplift and
metamorphism of sea-bed sediments during the late Paleozoic and the early Mesozoic eras. This sediment uplift was accompanied by
igneous intrusions and
volcanism. The most common rocks in West Antarctica are
andesite and
rhyolite volcanics formed during the Jurassic Period. There is also evidence of volcanic activity, even after the ice sheet had formed, in
Marie Byrd Land and
Alexander Island. The only anomalous area of West Antarctica is the
Ellsworth Mountains region, where the
stratigraphy is more similar to the eastern part of the continent.
East Antarctica is geologically very old, dating from the
Precambrian era, with some rocks formed more than 3 billion years ago. It is composed of a
Metamorphic rock metamorphic and
igneous platform which is the basis of the
Shield (geology) continental shield. On top of this base are various more modern rocks, such as
sandstones,
limestones, coal and
shales laid down during the Devonian and Jurassic periods to form the
Transantarctic Mountains. In coastal areas some
Geologic fault faulting has occurred, for example in the
Shackleton Range and in
Victoria Land.
The main
mineral resource known on the continent is
coal .
[''Antarctica: An Encyclopedia from Abbot Ice Shelf to Zooplankton'', Firefly, 2002. ISBN 1-55297-590-8.] It was first recorded near the
Beardmore Glacier by
Frank Wild on the
Nimrod Expedition, and now low-grade coal is known across many parts of the Transarctic Mountains. The
Prince Charles Mountains contain significant deposits of
iron ore. The most valuable resources of Antarctica in fact lie offshore, namely the
oil field oil and
natural gas fields found in the
Ross Sea in 1973. However exploitation of all mineral resources is banned until 2048 by the
Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty.
Climate
{{Main|Climate of Antarctica}}
Image:Lake Fryxell.jpg Blue ice (glacial) thumb|left|225px|The [[Blue ice (glacial)|Blue ice covering
Lake Fryxell, in the
Transantarctic Mountains, comes from
glacier glacial meltwater from the
Canada Glacier and other smaller glaciers..html" title="Meaning of Blue ice.html" title="Meaning of thumb|left|225px|The [[Blue ice (glacial)|Blue ice">thumb|left|225px|The [[Blue ice (glacial)|Blue ice covering
Lake Fryxell, in the
Transantarctic Mountains, comes from
glacier glacial meltwater from the
Canada Glacier and other smaller glaciers.">Blue ice.html" title="Meaning of thumb|left|225px|The [[Blue ice (glacial)|Blue ice">thumb|left|225px|The [[Blue ice (glacial)|Blue ice covering
Lake Fryxell, in the
Transantarctic Mountains, comes from
glacier glacial meltwater from the
Canada Glacier and other smaller glaciers.
Antarctica is the coldest place on earth. Antarctica has little
precipitation (meteorology) precipitation, with the South Pole getting almost none, making it a frozen desert. Temperatures reach a minimum of between −85 and −90 degrees Celsius (−121 and −130 degrees Fahrenheit) in the winter and about 30 degrees higher in the summer months. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects over 90% of the sunlight falling on it.
[British Antarctic Survey. [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/met/jds/weather/weather.htm ''Weather in the Antarctic''] Retrieved February 9, 2006.] Eastern Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation.
Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the center cold and dry. There is little precipitation over the central portion of the continent, but
ice there can last for extended time periods. However, heavy snowfalls are not uncommon on the coastal portion of the continent, where snowfalls of up to 1.22 meters (48 inches) in 48 hours have been recorded.
Image:Friesland-St-Boris.jpg 210px|thumb|right|Mountain glaciation At the edge of the continent, strong
katabatic winds off the polar plateau often blow at storm force. In the interior, however, wind speeds are often moderate. During summer more
solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the
equator in an equivalent period.
Antarctica is colder than the
Arctic for two reasons. Firstly, it is very much higher - much of the continent is above 3 km in height - and temperature decreases with height. Secondly, because the
Arctic Ocean covers the north polar zone. The ocean's relative warmth is transferred through the icepack and prevents temperatures in the Arctic regions from reaching the extremes typical of the land surface of Antarctica.
Depending on the latitude, long periods of constant darkness, or constant sunlight, mean that climates familiar to humans are not generally available on the continent. The
aurora australis, commonly known as the southern lights, is a glow observed in the night sky near the south pole. Another unique spectacle is
diamond dust. Diamond dust refers to a ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals. Diamond dust generally forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies, so people sometimes also refer to it as clear-sky precipitation. A
sundog, a frequent atmospheric
optical phenomenon, is a bright "spot" beside the true
sun.
s in Antarctica.html" title="Meaning of thumb|center|Tabletop [[iceberg">500px|thumb|center|Tabletop [[icebergs in Antarctica">thumb|center|Tabletop [[iceberg">500px|thumb|center|Tabletop [[icebergs in Antarctica
Population
{{seealso|Demographics of Antarctica}}
Although Antarctica has no permanent residents, a number of governments maintain permanent
research stations throughout the continent. The population of persons doing and supporting science on the continent and its nearby islands varies from approximately 4,000 in summer to 1,000 in winter. Many of the stations are staffed around the year.
Image:Antarctic researchers.jpg plankton.html" title="Meaning of thumb thumb|left|Two American researchers studying [[plankton through
microscopes..html" title="Meaning of left|Two American researchers studying [[plankton">thumb|left|Two American researchers studying [[plankton through
microscopes.">left|Two American researchers studying [[plankton">thumb|left|Two American researchers studying [[plankton through
microscopes.
The first settlers of Antarctica (the world region situated south of the
Antarctic Convergence) were English and American sealers who used to spend a year or more on
South Georgia Island South Georgia, from 1786 onward. During the whaling era which lasted until 1966, the population of that island varied from over 1000 in the summer (over 2000 in some years) to some 200 in the winter. Most of the whalers were Norwegian, with an increasing proportion of Britons. The settlements included
Grytviken,
Leith Harbour,
King Edward Point,
Stromness,
Husvik,
Prince Olav Harbour,
Ocean Harbour and
Godthul. Managers and other senior officers of the whaling stations often lived together with their families. Among them was the founder of
Grytviken Captain
Carl Anton Larsen, a prominent Norwegian whaler and explorer who adopted British citizenship in 1910. His family included his wife, three daughters and two sons.
Image:Fieldwork-Melnik.jpg 200px|thumb|right|Field workThe first child born in Antarctica was a Norwegian girl born on British soil, namely
Solveig Gunbjörg Jacobsen. She was born in Grytviken on 8 October 1913, and was registered by the resident British Magistrate of
South Georgia Island South Georgia. Solveig was a daughter of Fridthjof Jacobsen, the assistant manager of the whaling station, and of Klara Olette Jacobsen. Fridthjof Jacobsen arrived on the island in 1904 to become the manager of
Grytviken from 1914 to 1921; two of his children were born on the island
[R.K. Headland, The Island of South Georgia, Cambridge University Press, 1984.].
Emilio Marcos Palma was the first person born on the Antarctic Continent (Base Esperanza) in 1978, his parents being sent there along with seven other families by the Argentinean government to determine if family life was suitable in the continent. In 1986 Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva Base, becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica. Several bases are now home to families with children attending schools at the station.
[''The Antarctic Sun'' [http://antarcticsun.usap.gov/oldissues2002-2003/answer.html Questions and answers] Retrieved February 9, 2006.]
Flora and fauna
{{seealso|Antarctic ecozone}}
Flora
{{main|Antarctic flora}}
Image:Lichen squamulose.jpg lichen.html" title="Meaning of thumb thumb|left|More than 200 species of [[lichens are known in Antarctica..html" title="Meaning of left|More than 200 species of [[lichen">thumb|left|More than 200 species of [[lichens are known in Antarctica.">left|More than 200 species of [[lichen">thumb|left|More than 200 species of [[lichens are known in Antarctica.
The climate of Antarctica does not allow for much vegetation to exist. A combination of freezing temperatures,
soil quality, lack of moisture and sunlight limit the chances for plants to exist. As a result, plant life is limited to mostly mosses and liverworts. The autotrophic community is made up of mostly
protists. The
flora of the continent largely consists of
lichens,
bryophytes,
algae, and
fungi. Growth generally occurs in the summer and only for a few weeks, at most.
There are more than 200 species of lichens and approximately 50 species of bryophytes, such as mosses. Seven hundred species of algae exist, most of which are
phytoplankton. Multicolored
snow algae and
diatoms are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer. There are two species of flowering plants found in the Antarctic Peninsula:
Antarctic hair grass and
Antarctic pearlwort.
[Australian Antarctic Division [http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=5551 Antarctic Wildlife] Retrieved February 5, 2006.]
Fauna
Image:Emperor penguin.jpg Emperor_Penguin.html" title="Meaning of thumb thumb|165px|[[Emperor Penguins in
Ross Sea, Antarctica..html" title="Meaning of 165px|[[Emperor Penguin">thumb|165px|[[Emperor Penguins in
Ross Sea, Antarctica.">165px|[[Emperor Penguin">thumb|165px|[[Emperor Penguins in
Ross Sea, Antarctica.
Land
fauna (animals) fauna is completely
invertebrate. Such invertebrate life includes
microscopic mites,
lice, and
springtails. The
midge, just 12
millimeter mm in size, is the largest land animal in Antarctica (other than humans). The
snow petrel is one of only three birds that breed exclusively in Antarctica and have been seen at the
South Pole.
A variety of marine animals exist, and they rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes
penguins,
blue whales, and
fur seals. More specifically, the
Emperor penguin is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica. The
Adélie Penguin breeds further south than any penguin. The
Rockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the eyes; one could call them elaborate eyelashes.
King penguins are also predominant in the Antarctic. The
Antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. Antarctic krill, which congregate in large
swarm schools, is the
keystone species of the
ecosystem of the
Southern Ocean, and is an important food organism for whales, seals,
leopard seals, fur seals,
squid,
icefish, penguins,
albatrosses and many other birds.
[[http://www.knet.co.za/antarctica/fauna_and_flora.htm Creatures of Antarctica] Retrieved February 6, 2006.]
The approval of the
Antarctic Conservation Act brought several restrictions to the continent. The introduction of alien plants or animals can bring a criminal penalty, as can the extraction of any indigenous species. The overfishing of krill, which plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem, led officials to enact regulations on fishing. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), a treaty enacted in 1980, requires that regulations managing all Southern Ocean fisheries consider potential effects on the entire Antarctic ecosystem.
Despite these new acts, unregulated and illegal fishing, particularly of
Patagonian toothfish, remains a serious problem. Particularly, the illegal fishing of toothfish has been increasing with estimates of 32,000 tonnes in 2000.
[BBC News. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1492380.stm Toothfish at risk from illegal catches]. Retrieved February 11, 2006.][Australian Antarctic Division. [http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=1539 Toothfish]. Retrieved February 11, 2006.]
-
Underwater Field Guide to Ross Island & McMurdo Sound, Antarctica
Politics
Antarctica is considered a neutral territory in respect to politics. The
Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1959, and related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System, regulate
international relations with respect to Antarctica, Earth's only uninhabited continent. For the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica is defined as all land and
ice shelf ice shelves south of the southern 60th
circle of latitude parallel. The treaty was signed by 12 countries, including the
Soviet Union and the
United States, and set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation, environmental protection, and banned military activity on that continent. This was the first
arms control agreement established during the
Cold War. The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature in Antarctica, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon. It permits the use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes.
[Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. [http://www.scar.org/treaty/ ''Antarctic Treaty''] Retrieved February 9, 2006.]
Image:Logistic-Support.jpg 210px|thumb|left|Logistic support by the NavyAntarctica has no government. Various countries claim areas of it, but most countries do not recognize those claims. The area between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west is the only land on Earth not claimed by any country.
The only documented large-scale land military maneuver was "
Operación 90", undertaken 10 years before the Antarctic Treaty by the
Military of Argentina Argentinian military.
[Antarctica Institute of Argentina. [http://www.dna.gov.ar/INGLES/DIVULGAC/ARGANT.HTM ''Argentina in Antarctica''] Retrieved February 9, 2006.]
The
United States military issues the
Antarctica Service Medal to military members or civilians who perform research duty on the Antarctica continent. The medal may include a winter-over bar issued to those who remain on the continent for two complete six-month seasons.
[U.S. Navy [http://www.history.navy.mil/medals/antarc.htm Antarctic Service Medal] Retrieved February 9, 2006.]
{{-}}
Antarctic territories
{{main|Antarctic territories}}
Image:antarctica.jpg thumb|300px||Territorial claims of Antarctica
{| class="wikitable"
!Flag
!Territory
!Claimant
!Claim limits
!Date
|-
|
Image:Flag of France.svg 50px
|
Adelie Land
|
France
| {{coor dm Antarctic|142|2|E}} to {{coor dm Antarctic|136|11|E}}
| 1924
|-
|
Image:Flag of Argentina.svg 50px
|
Argentine Antarctica
|
Argentina
| {{coor d Antarctic|25|W}} to {{coor d Antarctic|74|W}}
| 1943
|-
|
Image:Flag of Australia.svg 50px
|
Australian Antarctic Territory
|
Australia
| {{coor d Antarctic|160|E}} to {{coor dm Antarctic|142|2|W}} and {{coor dm Antarctic|136|11|W}} to {{coor dm Antarctic|44|38|E}}
| 1933
|-
|
Image:Flag of Chile.svg 50px
|
Antártica Chilena Province
|
Chile
| {{coor d Antarctic|53|W}} to {{coor d Antarctic|90|W}}
| 1940
|-
|
Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg 50px
|
British Antarctic Territory
|
United Kingdom
| {{coor d Antarctic|20|W}} to {{coor d Antarctic|80|W}}
| 1908
|-
| rowspan="2" |
Image:Flag of Norway.svg 50px
|
Queen Maud Land Dronning Maud Land
| rowspan="2" |
Norway
| {{coor dm Antarctic|44|38|E}} to {{coor d Antarctic|20|W}}
| 1939
|-
|
Peter I Island
| {{coor dm|68|50|S|90|35|W|}}
| 1929
|-
|
Image:Flag of New Zealand.svg 50px
|
Ross Dependency
|
New Zealand
| {{coor d Antarctic|150|W}} to {{coor d Antarctic|160|E}}
| 1923
|}
The Argentinean, British and Chilean claims all overlap.
Germany also maintained a claim to Antarctica, known as
New Swabia between 1939 and 1945. It was situated from {{coor d Antarctic|20|E}} to {{coor d Antarctic|10|W}}, overlapping Norway's claim.
Economy
{{main|Economy of Antarctica}}
Image:Antarctic cod.jpg Patagonian toothfish.html" title="Meaning of thumb thumb|left|The illegal capture and sale of the [[Patagonian toothfish has led to several arrests..html" title="Meaning of left|The illegal capture and sale of the [[Patagonian toothfish">thumb|left|The illegal capture and sale of the [[Patagonian toothfish has led to several arrests.">left|The illegal capture and sale of the [[Patagonian toothfish">thumb|left|The illegal capture and sale of the [[Patagonian toothfish has led to several arrests.
Although coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, copper, chromium, nickel, gold and other minerals have been found, they exist in quantities too small to exploit. The 1991
Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty prevents such struggle for resources. In 1998 a compromise agreement was reached to add a 50-year ban on mining until the year 2048, further limiting economic development and exploitation. The primary agricultural activity is the capture and offshore trading of fish. Antarctic fisheries in 2000-01 reported landing 112,934 metric tons.
[Santa Barbara City College Biological Sciences [http://www.biosbcc.net/ocean/AAimportance.htm Importance of Antarctica] Retrieved February 5, 2006.]
Image:Antarctic-Postal-Services.jpg 210px|thumb|Antarctic postal services
Small-scale tourism has existed since 1957 and is currently self-regulated by International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO). However, not all vessels have joined the IAATO. Several ships transport people into Antarctica for specific scenic locations. A total of 27,950 tourists visited in the 2004-05 Antarctic summer with nearly all of them coming from commercial ships. The number is supposed to increase past 30,000 and over 80,000 by 2010.[International association of Antarctica Tour Operators. [http://www.iaato.org/tourism_stats.html Tourism Statistics]. Retrieved March 4, 2006.][[http://www.knet.co.za/antarctica/political.htm Politics of Antarctica] Retrieved February 5, 2006.] There has been some recent concern over the adverse effect done to the environment and ecosystem by this influx of visitors. A call for stricter regulations for ships and a tourism quota have been made by environmentalists and scientists alike.[''Telegraph UK''. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/main.jhtml?xml=/travel/2006/02/11/etnewsant.xml&sSheet=/travel/2006/02/11/ixtrvhome.html ''Tourism threatens Antarctic'']. Retrieved March 4, 2006.] Antarctic flights brought tourists from Australia and New Zealand until the fatal crash of Air New Zealand Flight 901 in 1979 near Mount Erebus.
Research
{{seealso|List of research stations in Antarctica}}
Image:Amundsen-Scott marsstation ray h edit.jpg full moon.html" title="Meaning of thumb thumb|left|300px|A [[full moon and 25-second exposure allowed sufficient light into this photo taken at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station during the long Antarctic night. The new station can be seen at far left, power plant in the center and the old mechanic's garage in the lower right..html" title="Meaning of left|300px|A [[full moon">thumb|left|300px|A [[full moon and 25-second exposure allowed sufficient light into this photo taken at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station during the long Antarctic night. The new station can be seen at far left, power plant in the center and the old mechanic's garage in the lower right.">left|300px|A [[full moon">thumb|left|300px|A [[full moon and 25-second exposure allowed sufficient light into this photo taken at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station during the long Antarctic night. The new station can be seen at far left, power plant in the center and the old mechanic's garage in the lower right.
Each year, scientists from 27 different nations conduct experiments not reproducible in any other place in the world but the Antarctic. In the summer more than 4,000 scientists operate research stations; this number decreases to nearly 1,000 in the winter.[Antarctic Connection [http://www.antarcticconnection.com/antarctic/science/index.shtml Science in Antarctica] Retrieved February 4, 2006.]
Since the 1970s an important focus of study has been the ozone layer in the atmosphere above Antarctica. In 1998 NASA satellite data showed that the Antarctic ozone hole was the largest on record, covering 27 million square kilometers. In 2002 significant areas of ice shelves disintegrated in response to regional warming.[NASA [http://www-curator.jsc.nasa.gov/antmet/index.cfm Meteorites from Antarctica] Retrieved February 9, 2006.]
This large collection of meteorites allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in the solar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets. New types of meteorites and rare meteorites have been found. Among these meteorites are pieces blasted off the moon, and probably Mars, by impacts. These specimens, specifically ALH84001 discovered by ANSMET, are at the center of the controversy about possible evidence of microbial life on early Mars. Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation, the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be determined from laboratory studies. The elapsed time since fall, or terrestrial residence age, of a meteorite represents more information that might be useful in environmental studies of Antarctic ice sheets.
See also
* List of antarctic and sub-antarctic islands
* List of places with fewer than ten residents (Note: refers to permanent residents)
* Antarctica ecozone
* Antarctic Stamps
* Antarctic Treaty System
* Argentine Antarctic Geopolitics
* Brazil Antarctic Geopolitics
* Chile Antarctic Geopolitics
* Communications in Antarctica
* Extreme points of Antarctica
* Flags of Antarctica
* ''Life in the Freezer'', a BBC natural history television series on life on and around Antarctica
* Transportation in Antarctica
Footnotes
External links
{{sisterlinks|Antarctica}}
- Antarctic Treaty Secretariat
- ANetStation - radio station in Antarctica
- The Antarctic Digital Database - a source of digital topographic map data for Antarctica
- Australian Antarctic Division
- British Antarctic Survey
- Biodiversity at Ardley Island, South Shetland archipelago, Antarctica
- Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP), official homepage.
- German Antarctic Ships and Stations
- Portals on the World - Antarctica from the Library of Congress
- The Russian State Museum of Arctic and Antarctic
- The Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research - coordinating body for Antarctic Science
- The World Factbook – Antarctica from the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency
- Latest Antarctic news and information by 70South
- International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO)
- The United States Antartic Program
- Antarctic Place-names Commission of Bulgaria
- One of many journals by a tourist to Antarctica
;Commercial
- Antarctic Connection (information section)
{{Continent}}
{{Region}}
Category:Antarctica
Category:Continents
Category:Lists of coordinates
Category:Outposts of Antarctica
Category:Special territories
{{Link FA|de}}
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Image:Antarctica_satellite_globe.jpg 100px|right|A satellite composite image of Antarctica
{|
|
{{sisterlinkswp|Category:Antarctica}}
{{commonscat|Antarctica}}
'''Antarctica''' is a continent surrounding the Earth's South Pole. It is the coldest place on earth and is almost entirely covered by ice. It is not to be confused with the Arctic, which is located near the Earth's North Pole.
{{catmore}}
|}
Category:Geography
Category:Continents
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*** Shopping-Tip: Antarctica
