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Aramaic Language
*** Shopping-Tip: Aramaic Language
{{Infobox Language
|name=Aramaic
|nativename=×?רמית ''ArÄ?mît'', Ü?ܪܡÜ?Ü? ''Ä€rÄ?mÄ?yâ''
|pronunciation=/arɑmiθ/, /arɑmit/, /ɑrɑmɑjɑ/, /ɔrɔmɔjɔ/
|states=
Armenia,
Azerbaijan,
Iran,
Iraq,
Israel,
Georgia (country) Georgia,
Lebanon,
Russia,
Syria and
Turkey
|region=Throughout the
Middle East,
Central Asia,
Europe,
North America and
Australia
|speakers=445,000
|familycolor=Afro-Asiatic
|fam2=
Semitic languages Semitic
|fam3=
West Semitic languages West Semitic
|fam4=
Central Semitic languages Central Semitic
|fam5=
Northwest Semitic languages Northwest Semitic
|script=
Aramaic alphabet Aramaic abjad,
Syriac alphabet Syriac abjad,
Hebrew alphabet Hebrew abjad,
Mandaic alphabet
|iso2=arc
|lc1=arc|ld1=Aramaic (ancient)|ll1=none
|lc2=aii|ld2=Assyrian Neo-Aramaic
|lc3=aij|ld3=Lishanid Noshan
|lc4=amw|ld4=Western Neo-Aramaic
|lc5=bhn|ld5=Bohtan Neo-Aramaic
|lc6=bjf|ld6=Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic
|lc7=cld|ld7=Chaldean Neo-Aramaic
|lc8=hrt|ld8=Hértevin|ll8=Hertevin language
|lc9=huy|ld9=Hulaulá|ll9=Hulaula language
|lc10=kqd|ld10=Koy Sanjaq Surat
|lc11=lhs|ld11=Mlahsô|ll11=Mlahso language
|lc12=lsd|ld12=Lishana Deni
|lc13=mid|ld13=Modern Mandaic|ll13=Mandaic language
|lc14=myz|ld14=Classical Mandaic|ll14=Mandaic language
|lc15=sam|ld15=Samaritan Aramaic
|lc16=syc|ld16=Syriac (classical)|ll16=Syriac language
|lc17=syn|ld17=Senaya|ll17=Senaya language
|lc18=tmr|ld18=Jewish Babylonian Aramaic|ll18=Talmud
|lc19=trg|ld19=Lishán Didán|ll19=Lishan Didan
|lc20=tru|ld20=Turoyo|ll20=Turoyo language}}
'''Aramaic''' is a
Semitic languages Semitic language with a 3,000-year history. It has been the language of administration of empires and the language of divine worship. It is the original language of large sections of the biblical books of
Book of Daniel Daniel and
Book of Ezra Ezra, and is the main language of the
Talmud (See [http://www.newjewishbooks.org/ITB/ Hoffman 2004], Chap 9.). Aramaic is believed to have been one of the languages spoken by
Aramaic of Jesus Jesus, and it is still spoken today as a first language by numerous small communities.
Aramaic belongs to the
Afro-Asiatic languages Afro-Asiatic Language families and languages language family. Within that diverse family, it belongs to the
Semitic languages Semitic subfamily. Aramaic is a part of the Northwest Semitic group of languages, which also includes the
Canaanite languages (including
Hebrew language Hebrew).
Geographic distribution
During the
12th century BC twelfth century BCE,
Aramaeans, the native speakers of Aramaic, began to settle in great numbers in modern-day
Syria,
Iraq and eastern
Turkey. As the language grew in importance, it came to be spoken throughout the
Mediterranean coastal area of the
Levant, and spread east of the
Tigris.
Jewish settlers took the language with them into
north Africa and
Europe, and Christian missionaries brought Aramaic into
Iran Persia,
India and even
China. From the
7th century seventh century CE onwards, Aramaic was replaced as the
lingua franca of the
Middle East by
Arabic language Arabic. However, Aramaic remains a literary and liturgical language among Jews,
Mandaeans and some Christians, and is still spoken by small isolated communities throughout its original area of influence. The turbulence of the last two centuries has seen speakers of first-language and literary Aramaic dispersed throughout the world.
Aramaic languages and dialects
Aramaic is really a group of related languages, rather than a single monolithic language. The long history of Aramaic, its extensive literature and its use by different religious communities are all factors in the diversification of the language. Some Aramaic dialects are mutually intelligible, whereas others are not. Some Aramaic languages are known under different names; for example, ''
Syriac language Syriac'' is particularly used to describe the Eastern Aramaic of Christian communities. Most dialects can be described as either "Eastern"' or "Western," the dividing line being roughly the
Euphrates, or slightly west of it. It is also helpful to draw a distinction between those Aramaic languages that are modern living languages (often called ''Neo-Aramaic''), those that are still in use as literary languages, and those that are extinct and are only of interest to scholars. Although there are some exceptions to this rule, this classification gives "Modern," "Middle" and "Old" periods, alongside "Eastern" and "Western" areas, to distinguish between the various languages and dialects that are Aramaic.
Writing system
Image:Serto.jpg Syriac alphabet left|thumb|320px|11th century book in [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac Serto..html" title="Meaning of Syriac Serto.html" title="Meaning of left|thumb|320px|11th century book in [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac Serto">left|thumb|320px|11th century book in [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac Serto.">Syriac Serto.html" title="Meaning of left|thumb|320px|11th century book in [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac Serto">left|thumb|320px|11th century book in [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac Serto.
The earliest
Aramaic alphabet was based on the
Phoenician alphabet Phoenician script. In time, Aramaic developed its distinctive 'square' style. The ancient Israelites and other peoples of
Canaan adopted this alphabet for writing their own languages. Thus, it is better known as the
Hebrew alphabet today. This is the writing system used in
Biblical Aramaic and other Jewish writing in Aramaic.
The other main writing system used for Aramaic was developed by Christian communities: a cursive form known as the
Syriac alphabet (one of the varieties of the Syriac alphabet, Serto, is shown to the left).
A highly modified form of the Aramaic alphabet, the
Mandaic alphabet, is used by the
Mandaeans.
In addition to these writing systems, certain derivatives of the Aramaic alphabet were used in ancient times by particular groups:
Nabataean alphabet Nabataean in
Petra, for instance, or
Palmyrenean alphabet Palmyrenean in
Palmyra. In modern times,
Turoyo language Turoyo (see
#Modern East Aramaic below) has sometimes been written in an adapted
Latin alphabet.
History
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ImageSize = width:320 height:700
PlotArea = right:40 top:10 left:40 bottom:10
DateFormat = yyyy
TimeAxis = orientation:vertical order:reverse
Period = from:-1200 till:2005
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Colors =
id:canvas value:rgb(1,1,0.85)
BackgroundColors = canvas:canvas
PlotData =
width:15 color:red
bar:test from:-1200 till:200 # Old Aramaic
PlotData =
width:15 color:orange
bar:test from:200 till:1200 # Middle Aramaic
PlotData =
width:15 color:yellow
bar:test from:1200 till:2005 # Modern Aramaic
PlotData =
bar:test at:-1200 mark:(line,white)
at:-1200 shift:(10,0) text:12th c. BCE Aramaeans settle in Aram
bar:test at:-1000 mark:(line,white)
at:-1000 shift:(10,0) text:10th c. BCE early written Aramaic
bar:test at:-740 mark:(line,white)
at:-740 shift:(10,0) text:740s BCE Aramaic official in Assyria
bar:test at:-500 mark:(line,white)
at:-500 shift:(10,0) text:c.500 BCE Darius I decrees Aramaic official
bar:test at:-425 mark:(line,white)
at:-425 shift:(10,0) text:5th c. BCE Elephantine papyri composed
bar:test at:-330 mark:(line,white)
at:-331 shift:(10,0) text:331 BCE Greek ascendancy
bar:test at:-246 mark:(line,white)
at:-246 shift:(10,0) text:247 BCE] Aramaic official in Arsacid Empire
bar:test at:-169 mark:(line,white)
at:-169 shift:(10,5) text:c. 170 BCE Book of Daniel probably composed
bar:test at:-141 mark:(line,white)
at:-141 shift:(10,0) text:142 BCE Aramaic official in Hasmonaean Judah
bar:test at:-49 mark:(line,white)
at:-40 shift:(10,0) text:1st c. BCE Aramaic Palmyra, Petra & Osrhoene
bar:test at:45 mark:(line,white)
at:45 shift:(10,0) text:1st c. New Testament records some Aramaic
bar:test at:135 mark:(line,white)
at:135 shift:(10,4) text:135 Galilean Aramaic becomes prominent
bar:test at:172 mark:(line,white)
at:172 shift:(10,1) text:172 Tatian's Diatessaron produced
bar:test at:200 mark:(line,white)
at:200 shift:(10,-3) text:3rd c. Targum composition
bar:test at:224 mark:(line,white)
at:224 shift:(10,-8) text:224 Classical Mandaic emerges
bar:test at:306 mark:(line,white)
at:306 shift:(10,-1) text:c. 306 Ephrem born, Syriac golden age
bar:test at:431 mark:(line,white)
at:431 shift:(10,0) text:431 Nestorian schism of Aramaic Christians
bar:test at:435 mark:(line,white)
at:435 shift:(10,-9) text:c. 435 Peshitta Syriac Bible produced
bar:test at:637 mark:(line,white)
at:637 shift:(10,0) text:637 Arabic ascendancy
bar:test at:700 mark:(line,white)
at:700 shift:(10,0) text:700 Talmud completed
bar:test at:1258 mark:(line,black)
at:1258 shift:(10,0) text:1258 Mongols sack Baghdad
bar:test at:1290 mark:(line,black)
at:1290 shift:(10,-5) text:13th c. Zohar published in Spain
bar:test at:1650 mark:(line,black)
at:1650 shift:(10,0) text:17th c. School of Alqosh flourishes
bar:test at:1836 mark:(line,black)
at:1836 shift:(10,0) text:1836 Assyrian Neo-Aramaic first in print
bar:test at:1915 mark:(line,black)
at:1915 shift:(10,4) text:1915 Persecution in Turkey
bar:test at:1951 mark:(line,black)
at:1951 shift:(10,2) text:1951 Aramaic Jews move to Israel
bar:test at:1998 mark:(line,black)
at:1998 shift:(10,0) text:1998 last speakers of Mlahso & Bijil die
|}
Here follows a comprehensive history of Aramaic. The history is broken down into three broad periods:
*
#Old Aramaic Old Aramaic (
1100 BCE–200 CE), including:
**The
Biblical Aramaic of the
Hebrew Bible.
**The
Aramaic of Jesus.
**The Aramaic of the
Targums.
*
#Middle Aramaic Middle Aramaic (200–1200), including:
**Literary
Syriac language Syriac.
**The Aramaic of the
Talmuds and
Midrashim.
*
#Modern Aramaic Modern Aramaic (1200–present), including:
**Various modern vernaculars.
This classification is based on that used by Klaus Beyer
#References *.
Old Aramaic
Old Aramaic covers over thirteen centuries of the language. This vast time span is chosen as it includes all Aramaic that is now effectively extinct. The main turning point for Old Aramaic is around
500 BCE, when the Ancient Aramaic (the language of Aramaeans) moves into Imperial Aramaic (the language of powerful empires). The various spoken dialects of Old Aramaic come to prominence when
Greek language Greek replaces Aramaic as the language of power in the region.
Ancient Aramaic
Ancient Aramaic refers to the Aramaic of the
Arameans Aramaeans from its origin until it becomes the official 'lingua franca' of the
Fertile Crescent. It was the language of the city-states of
Damascus,
Hamath and
Arpad (Syria) Arpad.
=Early Ancient Aramaic
=
There are quite extensive inscriptions that evidence the earliest use of the language, dating from the
10th century BC tenth century BCE. These inscriptions are mostly diplomatic documents between Aramaean city-states. The orthography of Aramaic at this early period seems to be based on
Phoenician alphabet Phoenician, and there is a unity in the written language. It seems that, in time, a more refined orthography, suited to the needs of the language, began to develop from this in the eastern regions of Aram. Oddly, the dominance of
Assyrian Empire of
Tiglath-Pileser III over Aram in the middle of the eighth century led to the establishment of Aramaic as a
lingua franca.
Image:Bar-rakib.jpg Zincirli.html" title="Meaning of left left|thumb|200px|Silver ingot of Bar-Rakib son of Panammu, king of Sam'al (modern [[Zincirli).html" title="Meaning of thumb|200px|Silver ingot of Bar-Rakib son of Panammu, king of Sam'al (modern [[Zincirli">left|thumb|200px|Silver ingot of Bar-Rakib son of Panammu, king of Sam'al (modern [[Zincirli)">thumb|200px|Silver ingot of Bar-Rakib son of Panammu, king of Sam'al (modern [[Zincirli">left|thumb|200px|Silver ingot of Bar-Rakib son of Panammu, king of Sam'al (modern [[Zincirli)
=Late Ancient Aramaic
=
From
700 BCE, the language began to spread in all directions, but lost much of its homogeneity. Different dialects began to emerge in
Mesopotamia,
Babylonia, the
Levant and
Egypt. However, the
Akkadian language Akkadian-influenced Aramaic of Assyria, and then
Babylon, started to come to the fore. As described in
Books of Kings 2 Kings 18:26,
Hezekiah, king of
Kingdom of Judah Judah, negotiates with Assyrian ambassadors in Aramaic so that the common people would not understand. Around
600 BCE, Adon, a
Canaanite king, uses Aramaic to write to the Egyptian
Pharaoh.
'Chaldee' or 'Chaldean Aramaic' used to be common terms for the Aramaic of the Chaldean dynasty of
Babylonia. It was used to describe
Biblical Aramaic, which was, however, written in a later style. It is not to be confused with the modern language
Chaldean Neo-Aramaic.
Imperial Aramaic
Around
500 BCE,
Darius I made Aramaic the official language of the western half of the
Achaemenid Persian Empire. The bureaucrats in Babylon were already using the local dialect of Eastern Aramaic for most of their work, but Darius's edict put Aramaic on firm, united foundations. The new, Imperial Aramaic was highly standardised; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect, and the inevitable influence of
Persian language Persian gave the language a new clarity and robust flexibility. Imperial Aramaic is sometimes called Official Aramaic or
Biblical Aramaic. For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire (in
331 BCE), Imperial Aramaic as prescribed by Darius, or near enough for it to be recognisable, remained the dominant language of the region.
'
Achaemenid Aramaic' is used to describe the Imperial Aramaic of the Achaemenid Empire. This period of Aramaic is usually dated from the proclamation of Darius (''c.'' 500 BCE) to about a century after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire in 331 BCE. Many of the extant documents witnessing to this form of Aramaic come from
Egypt, and
Elephantine in particular. Of them, the most well known is the 'Wisdom of Ahiqar', a book of instructive aphorisms quite similar in style to the biblical
book of Proverbs. Achaemenid Aramaic is sufficiently uniform that it is often difficult to know where any particular example of the language was written. Only careful examination reveals the occasional loan word from a local language.
=Post-Achaemenid Aramaic
=
Image:Alexander Aramaic coin.jpg thumb|left|200px|Coin of Alexander bearing an Aramaic language inscription.
The conquest by
Alexander the Great did not destroy the unity of Aramaic language and literature immediately. Aramaic that bears a relatively close resemblance to that of the
5th century BC fifth century BCE can be found right up to the early
2nd century BC second century. The
Seleucids imposed
Greek language Greek in the administration of
Syria and
Mesopotamia from the start of their rule. In the
3rd century BC third century, Greek overtook Aramaic as the common language in Egypt and Syria. However, a post-Achaemenid Aramaic continued to flourish from
Judaea, through the Syrian Desert, and into
Arabia and
Parthia. This continuation of Imperial Aramaic was a subversive, anti-Hellenistic statement of independence.
Biblical Aramaic is the Aramaic found in four discrete sections of the
Hebrew Bible:
*
Book of Ezra Ezra 4:8–6:18 and 7:12–26 — documents from the Achaemenid period (
5th century BC fifth century BCE) concerning the restoration of the temple in Jerusalem.
*
Book of Daniel Daniel 2:4b–7:28 — five subversive tales and an apocalyptic vision.
*
Book of Jeremiah Jeremiah 10:11 — a single sentence in the middle of a Hebrew text denouncing idolatry.
*
Genesis 31:47 — translation of a Hebrew place-name.
Biblical Aramaic is a somewhat hybrid dialect. Some Biblical Aramaic material probably originated in both Babylonia and Judaea before the fall of the Achaemenid dynasty. During
Seleucid rule, defiant Jewish propaganda shaped Aramaic
Book of Daniel Daniel. These stories probably existed as oral traditions at their earliest stage. This might be one factor that led to differing collections of Daniel in the
Greek language Greek Septuagint and the
Masoretic Text, which presents a lightly
Hebrew language Hebrew-influenced Aramaic.
Under the category of post-Achaemenid is Hasmonaean Aramaic, the official language of
Hasmonean Hasmonaean Judaea (
142 BC 142–
37 BC 37 BCE). It influenced the Biblical Aramaic of the
Qumran texts, and was the main language of non-biblical theological texts of that community. The major
Targums, translations of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, were originally composed in Hasmonaean. Hasmonaean also appears in quotations in the
Mishnah and
Tosefta, although smoothed into its later context. It is written quite differently from Achaemenid Aramaic; there is an emphasis on writing as words are pronounced rather than using etymological forms.
Babylonian
Targumic is the later post-Achaemenid dialect found in the
Targum Onkelos Targum Onqelos and
Targum Jonathan, the 'official' targums. The original, Hasmonaean targum had reached Babylon sometime in the
2nd century second or
3rd century third centuries CE. They were then reworked according to the contemporary dialect of Babylon to create the language of the standard targums. This combination formed the basis of Babylonian Jewish literature for centuries to follow.
Image:Targum.jpg Targum.html" title="Meaning of right right|thumb|320px|11th century [[Targum of the
Hebrew Bible..html" title="Meaning of thumb|320px|11th century [[Targum">right|thumb|320px|11th century [[Targum of the
Hebrew Bible.">thumb|320px|11th century [[Targum">right|thumb|320px|11th century [[Targum of the
Hebrew Bible.
Galilean Targumic is similar to Babylonian Targumic. It is the mixing of literary Hasmonaean with the dialect of
Galilee. The Hasmonaean targum reached Galilee in the second century CE, and were reworked into this Galilean dialect for local use. The Galilean Targum was never considered an authoritative work, and documentary evidence shows that its text was amended wherever and whenever 'improvement' was needed. From the
11th century eleventh century CE onwards, once the Babylonian Targum had become normative, the Galilean version became heavily influenced by it.
Babylonian Documentary Aramaic is a dialect in use from the third century CE onwards. It is the dialect of Babylonian private documents, and, from the
12th century twelfth century, all Jewish private documents in Aramaic. It is based on Hasmonaean with very few changes. This was perhaps due to the fact that many of the documents in BDA are legal documents, the language in them had to be sensible throughout the Jewish community from the start, and Hasmonaean was the old standard.
Nabataean Aramaic is the language of the Arab kingdom of
Petra. The kingdom (''c.''
200 BCE–
106 106 CE covered the east bank of the
Jordan River, the
Sinai Peninsula and northern Arabia. Perhaps because of the importance of the caravan trade, the Nabataeans began to use Aramaic in preference to
Old North Arabic. The dialect is based on Achaemenid with a little influence from Arabic: 'l' is often turned into 'n', and there are a few Arabic loan words. Some Nabataean Aramaic inscriptions exist from the early days of the kingdom, but most are from the first four centuries CE. The language is written in a
cursive script that is the precursor to the modern
Arabic alphabet. The number of Arabic loan words increases through the centuries, until, in the
4th century fourth century, Nabataean merges seamlessly with
Arabic language Arabic.
Palmyrene Aramaic is the dialect that was in use in the city of
Palmyra in the Syrian Desert from
44 BCE to 274 CE. It was written in a rounded script, which later gave way to cursive
Estrangela. Like Nabataean, Palmyrene was influenced by Arabic, but to a lesser degree.
Arsacid Aramaic was the official language of the
Parthian Empire (
247 BCE–224 CE). It, more than any other post-Achaemenid dialect, continues the tradition of
Darius I. Over time, however, it came under the influence of contemporary, spoken Aramaic,
Georgian language Georgian and
Persian language Persian. After the conquest of the Parthians by the Persian-speaking
Sassanids, Arsacid exerted considerable influence on the new official language.
Late Old Eastern Aramaic
Image:Mandaic.jpg Mandaic_language left|thumb|320px|[[Mandaic language|Mandaic magical 'demon trap'.html" title="Meaning of Mandaic.html" title="Meaning of left|thumb|320px|[[Mandaic language|Mandaic">left|thumb|320px|[[Mandaic language|Mandaic magical 'demon trap'">Mandaic.html" title="Meaning of left|thumb|320px|[[Mandaic language|Mandaic">left|thumb|320px|[[Mandaic language|Mandaic magical 'demon trap'
The dialects mentioned in the last section were all descended from Achaemenid Imperial Aramaic. However, the diverse regional dialects of Late Ancient Aramaic continued alongside these, often as simple, spoken languages. Early evidence for these spoken dialects is known only through their influence on words and names in a more standard dialect. However, these regional dialects became written languages in the
2nd century BC second century BCE. These dialects reflect a stream of Aramaic that is not dependent on Imperial Aramaic, and shows a clear division between the regions of Mesopotamia, Babylon and the east, and Judah, Syria, and the west.
In the east, the dialects of Palmyrene and Arsacid Aramaic merged with the regional languages to create languages with a foot in Imperial and a foot in regional Aramaic. Much later, Arsacid became the liturgical language of the
Mandaean religion,
Mandaic language Mandaic.
In the kingdom of
Osrhoene, centred on
Edessa, Mesopotamia Edessa and founded in
132 BCE, the regional dialect became the official language: Old
Syriac language Syriac. On the upper reaches of the
Tigris, East Mesopotamian Aramaic flourished, with evidence from
Hatra,
Assur and the
Tur Abdin.
Tatian, the author of the gospel harmony the
Diatessaron came from Assyria, and perhaps wrote his work (172 CE) in East Mesopotamian rather than Syriac or Greek. In Babylonia, the regional dialect was used by the Jewish community, Jewish Old Babylonian (from ''c.''
70 CE). This everyday language increasingly came under the influence of Biblical Aramaic and Babylonian Targumic.
Late Old Western Aramaic
The western regional dialects of Aramaic followed a similar course to those of the east. They are quite distinct from the eastern dialects and Imperial Aramaic. Aramaic came to coexist with Canaanite dialects, eventually displacing
Phoenician language Phoenician in the 1st century BCE and
Hebrew language#Aramaic displaces Hebrew as a spoken language Hebrew around the turn of the 4th century CE.
The form of Late Old Western Aramaic used by the Jewish community is best attested, and is usually referred to as
Jewish Old Palestinian. Its oldest form is Old East Jordanian, which probably comes from the region of
Caesarea Philippi. This is the dialect of the oldest manuscript of
Enoch (''c.''
170 BCE). The next distinct phase of the language is called
Old Judean into the second century CE. Old Judean literature can be found in various inscriptions and personal letters, preserved quotations in the
Talmud and receipts from
Qumran.
Josephus' first, non-extant edition of his ''
Jewish War'' was written in Old Judean.
The Old East Jordanian dialect continued to be used into the first century CE by pagan communities living to the east of the Jordan. Their dialect is often then called Pagan Old Palestinian, and it was written in a cursive script somewhat similar to that used for Old Syriac. A Christian Old Palestinian dialect may have arisen from the pagan one, and this dialect may be behind some of the Western Aramaic tendencies found in the otherwise eastern Old Syriac gospels (see
Peshitta).
=The spoken dialects of Jesus' time
=
In addition to Qumran and Mishnaic dialects of
Hebrew language#Classic Hebrew Hebrew that are extensively attested in the
Dead Sea Scrolls, seven dialects of
Aramaic#Old Late Western Aramaic Western Aramaic were spoken in the vicinity of the land of Israel in
Jesus's time. They were probably distinctive yet mutually intelligible. Old Judaean was the prominent dialect of
Jerusalem and Judaea. The region of
Ein Gedi Engedi had the South-east Judaean dialect.
Samaria had its distinctive Samaritan Aramaic, where the consonants 'he', 'heth' and '`ayin' all became pronounced as 'aleph'. Galilean Aramaic, the dialect of Jesus's home region, is only known from a few place names, the influences on Galilean Targumic, some rabbinic literature and a few private letters. It seems to have a number of distinctive features:
diphthongs are never simplified into monophthongs. East of the Jordan, the various dialects of East Jordanian were spoken. In the region of
Damascus and the mountain range of
Anti-Lebanon, Damascene Aramaic was spoken (deduced mostly from Modern Western Aramaic). Finally, as far north as
Aleppo, the western dialect of Orontes Aramaic was spoken.
Besides Hebrew and Aramaic,
Koine Greek Greek was used in urban centers. The exact roles of these three spoken languages remain hotly debated, suggesting Hebrew as a local language, Aramaic as an international language for the Mideast, and Greek as an international language for the Roman Empire. The antiquated Hebrew of the
Tanakh was generally understandable among Hebrew speaking communities. (Latin had little role outside of the Roman military. The Roman administrative language was Greek.)
The three languages mutually influenced eachother, especially Hebrew and Aramaic. Hebrew words entered Jewish Aramaic (mostly technical religious words but also everyday words like ''`Ä“tz'' "wood"). Visa versa, Aramaic words entered Hebrew (not only Aramaic words like ''mÄ?mmôn'' "wealth" but Aramaic ways of using words like making Hebrew ''rÄ?’ûi'' "seen" mean "worthy" in the sense of "seemly", which is a loan translation of Aramaic ''ħÄ?zê'' meaning "seen" and "worthy").
The Greek of the
New Testament often preserves non-Greek "Semitisms", including transliterations of
Semitic words:
* Some seem Hebrew like Jesus's command ''Ephphatha'' εφφαθα that can represent the nifal imperative form, ''hippÄ?thaħ'' הִפָּתַח "Be opened!" (Mark 7:34).
* Others seem Aramaic like ''Talitha'' Ταλιθα that can represent the noun, ''Å¢alyÄ•thÄ?’'' טַלְיְתָ×? "teenager" (Mark 5:41).
* Others can be either Hebrew or Armaic like ''Rabbounei'' Ραββουνει that can represent, ''Ribbônî'' ×¨Ö´×‘Ö¼×•Ö¹× Ö´×™ "my Mastership" in either language (John 20:16).
The evidence suggests a complex linguistic environment and caution is necessary when analyzing the data.
By the early half of the 20th century, before the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls came to light, many scholars tried to reconstruct the New Testament Semitisms as if
Aramaic of Jesus Aramaic only, albeit assuming several loan words from Hebrew (like the imperative, ''Hosha` nÄ?'' "Please, save!" which can only come from Hebrew) (Mark 11:9). However as Hebrew evidently survived as a spoken language throughout Israel's
Roman Period, scholars in the 21st century are more cautious.
The 2004 film ''
The Passion of the Christ'' is notable for its use of much dialogue in Aramaic only, specially reconstructed by a lone scholar
William Fulco. However, modern Aramaic speakers found the language stilted and unfamiliar.
Middle Aramaic
The
3rd century third century CE is taken as the threshold between Old and Middle Aramaic. During that century, the nature of the various Aramaic languages and dialects begins to change. The descendents of Imperial Aramaic ceased to be living languages, and the eastern and western regional languages began to form vital, new literatures. Unlike many of the dialects of Old Aramaic, much is known about the vocabulary and grammar of Middle Aramaic.
Eastern Middle Aramaic
Only two of the Old Eastern Aramaic languages continued into this period. In the north of the region, Old Syriac moved into Middle Syriac. In the south, Jewish Old Babylonian became Jewish Middle Babylonian. The post-Achaemenid, Arsacid dialect became the background of the new
Mandaic language.
=Middle Syriac
=
Image:Estrangela.jpg Syriac language right|thumb|320px|9th century [[Syriac language|Syriac Syriac alphabet Estrangela manuscript of
John Chrysostom's ''Homily on the
Gospel of John''.html" title="Meaning of Syriac.html" title="Meaning of right|thumb|320px|9th century [[Syriac language|Syriac">right|thumb|320px|9th century [[Syriac language|Syriac
Syriac alphabet Estrangela manuscript of
John Chrysostom's ''Homily on the
Gospel of John''">Syriac.html" title="Meaning of right|thumb|320px|9th century [[Syriac language|Syriac">right|thumb|320px|9th century [[Syriac language|Syriac
Syriac alphabet Estrangela manuscript of
John Chrysostom's ''Homily on the
Gospel of John''
: ''See
Syriac language for more information''.
Middle Syriac is the classical, literary and liturgical language of
Syriac Christianity Syriac Christians to this day. Its golden age was the
4th century fourth to
6th century sixth centuries. This period began with the translation of the Bible into the language: the
Peshitta and the masterful prose and poetry of
Ephrem the Syrian. Middle Syriac, unlike its forebear, is a thoroughly Christian language, although in time it became the language of those opposed to the
Byzantine Empire Byzantine leadership of the church in the east. Missionary activity led to the spread of Syriac through
Iran Persia and into
India and
China.
{{listen|filename=aboun.ogg|title=Abun dbashmayo|description=The
Lord's Prayer, ''Abun dbashmayo'', sung in
Syriac language Syriac}}
=Jewish Middle Babylonian Aramaic
=
Jewish Middle Babylonian is the language employed by Jewish writers in Babylonia between the 4th century and the 11th century CE. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian
Talmud (which was completed in the
7th century seventh century) and of post-Talmudic (Geonic) literarure, which are the most important cultural products Babylonian Jewry. The most important epigraphic sources for the dialect are the hundreds of Aramaic magic bowls written in the Jewish script.
=Mandaic
=
: ''See
Mandaic language for more information''.
Mandaic is a sister dialect to Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, though it is both linguistically and culturally distinct. Classical Mandaic is the language in which the Mandaean's religious literature was composed. It is characterized by a highly phonetic orthography.
Western Middle Aramaic
The dialects of Old Western Aramaic continued with Jewish Middle Palestinian (in
Hebrew alphabet Hebrew 'square script'), Samaritan Aramaic (in the
Phoenician alphabet old Hebrew script) and Christian Palestinian (in cursive
Syriac alphabet Syriac script). Of these three, only Jewish Middle Palestinian continued as a written language.
=Jewish Middle Palestinian Aramaic
=
In 135, after
Bar Kokhba's revolt, many
Jewish leaders, expelled from
Jerusalem, moved to
Galilee. The Galilean dialect thus rose from obscurity to become the standard among Jews in the west. This dialect was spoken not only in Galilee, but also in the surrounding parts. It is the linguistic setting for the
Jerusalem Talmud Palestinian Talmud (completed in the
5th century fifth century) and
midrashim (biblical commentaries and teaching). The modern standard of vowel pointing for the
Hebrew Bible, the Tiberian system (
10th century tenth century), was most probably based on the pronunciation of the Galilean dialect of Jewish Middle Palestinian. The inscription in the synagogue at
Dura-Europos are either in Middle East Jordanian or Middle Judaean.
Middle Judaean, the descendent of Old Judaean, is no longer the dominant dialect, and was used only in southern Judaea (the variant Engedi dialect continued throughout this period). Likewise, Middle East Jordanian continues as a minor dialect from Old East Jordanian.
=Samaritan Aramaic
=
The Aramaic dialect of the
Samaritan community is earliest attested by a documentary tradition that can be dated back to the fourth century. Its modern pronunciation is based on the form used in the tenth century.
=Christian Palestinian Aramaic
=
The language of Western-Aramaic-speaking Christians is evidenced from the sixth century, but probably existed two centuries earlier. The language itself comes from Christian Old Palestinian, but its writing conventions were based on early Middle Syriac, and it was heavily influenced by Greek. The name Jesus, although ''Yešû`'' in Aramaic, is written ''Yesûs'' in Christian Palestinian.
Modern Aramaic
{{main|Neo-Aramaic languages}}
Over four hundred thousand people speak Aramaic to this day. They are Jews, Christians, Muslims and Mandaeans, living in remote areas and preserving their traditions with printing presses, and now electronic media. The Modern Aramaic (or ''Neo-Aramaic'') languages are now farther apart in their comprehension of one another than perhaps they have ever been. The last two-hundred years have not been good to Aramaic speakers. Instability throughout the Middle East has led to a worldwide diaspora of Aramaic speakers. The year 1915 is especially prominent for Aramaic-speaking Christians: called ''
Syriac genocide Sayfo/SaypÄ?'' (''sword'' in Syriac), all Christian groups (
Assyrian people Assyrians,
Armenians and others) living in eastern
Turkey were the subject of the persecutions that marked the end of the
Ottoman Empire. For Aramaic-speaking Jews 1950 is a watershed year: the newly founded state of
Israel led most Aramaic-speaking Jews to emigrate there. However, removal to Israel has led to Jewish Neo-Aramaic being swamped in a sea of Modern Hebrew, and the practical extinction of many Jewish dialects is imminent.
Modern Eastern Aramaic
Modern Eastern Aramaic exists in a wide variety of dialects and languages. There is significant difference between the Aramaic spoken by Jews, Christians and Mandaeans.
The Christian languages are often called Modern
Syriac language Syriac (or Neo-Syriac, particularly when referring to their literature), being deeply influenced by the literary and liturgical language of Middle Syriac. However, they also have roots in numerous, previously unwritten, local Aramaic dialects, and are not purely the direct descendants of the language of
Ephrem the Syrian.
Modern Western Syriac (also called Central Neo-Aramaic, being in between Western Neo-Aramaic and Eastern Neo-Syriac) is generally represented by
Turoyo language Turoyo, the language of the
Tur Abdin. A related language,
Mlahso language Mlahsö, has recently become extinct.
The eastern Christian languages (Modern Eastern Syriac or Eastern Neo-Aramaic) are often called ''Sureth'' or ''Suret'', from a native name. They are also sometimes called ''
Assyrian Neo-Aramaic Assyrian'' or ''
Chaldean Neo-Aramaic Chaldean'', but these names are not accepted by all speakers. The dialects are not all mutually intelligible. East Syriac communities are usually either
Chaldean Catholic Church Chaldean Catholics or
Assyrian Church of the East Assyrians.
The
Judeo-Aramaic language Jewish Modern Aramaic languages are now mostly spoken in
Israel, and most are facing extinction (older speakers are not passing the language to younger generations). The Jewish dialects that have come from communities that once lived between
Lake Urmia and
Mosul are not all mutually intelligible. In some places, for example
Urmia, Christians and Jews speak unintelligible dialects of Modern Eastern Aramaic in the same place. In others, the plain of Mosul for example, the dialects of the two faith communities are similar enough to allow conversation.
A few Mandaeans living in the province of
Khuzestan in
Iran speak Modern
Mandaic language Mandaic. It is quite distinct from any other Aramaic dialect.
Modern Western Aramaic
{{main|Western Neo-Aramaic}}
Very little remains of Western Aramaic. It is still spoken in the Christian village of
Ma'loula Ma`loula in Syria and the Muslim villages of
Bakh`a and
Jubb`adin in
Syria's side of
Anti-Lebanon, as well as by some people who migrated from these villages to
Damascus and other larger towns of Syria. All these speakers of Modern Western Aramaic are fluent in Arabic, which has now become the main language in these villages.
Sounds
Each dialect of Aramaic has its own distinctive pronunciation, and it would not be possible here to go into all these properties. Aramaic has a phonological palette of 25 to 40 distinct phonemes. In general, older dialects tended to have a richer phonology than more modern ones. In particular, some modern Jewish Aramaic pronunciations lack the series of 'emphatic' consonants. Other dialects have borrowed from the inventories of surrounding languages, particularly
Arabic language Arabic,
Azeri language Azeri,
Kurdish language Kurdish,
Persian language Persian and
Turkish language Turkish.
Vowels
As with most Semitic languages, Aramaic can be thought of as having three basic sets of vowels:
* Open ''a''-vowels
* Close front ''i''-vowels
* Close back ''u''-vowels
These vowel groups are relatively stable, but the exact articulation of any individual is most dependent on its consonantal setting.
The cardinal open vowel is an open near-front unrounded vowel ('short' ''a'', like the first vowel in the English 'batter',
International Phonetic Alphabet IPA: {{IPA|/a/}}). It usually has a back counterpart ('long' ''a'', like the ''a'' in 'father',
International Phonetic Alphabet IPA: {{IPA|/É‘/}}, or even tending to the vowel in 'caught',
International Phonetic Alphabet IPA: {{IPA|/É”/}}), and a front counterpart ('short' ''e'', like the vowel in 'head',
International Phonetic Alphabet IPA: {{IPA|/É›/}}). There is much correspondence between these vowels between dialects. There is some evidence that Middle Babylonian dialects did not distinguish between the short ''a'' and short ''e''. In West Syriac dialects, and possibly Middle Galilean, the long ''a'' became the ''o'' sound. The open ''e'' and back ''a'' are often indicated in writing by the use of the letters 'alaph' (a
glottal stop) or 'he' (like the English ''h'').
The cardinal close front vowel is the 'long' ''i'' (like the vowel in 'need',
International Phonetic Alphabet IPA: {{IPA|/i/}}). It has a slightly more open counterpart, the 'long' ''e'', as in the final vowel of 'café' (
International Phonetic Alphabet IPA: {{IPA|/e/}}). Both of these have shorter counterparts, which tend to be pronounced slightly more open. Thus, the short close ''e'' corresponds with the open ''e'' in some dialects. The close front vowels usually use the consonant ''y'' as a
matres lectionis mater lectionis.
The cardinal close back vowel is the 'long' ''u'' (like the vowel in 'school',
International Phonetic Alphabet IPA: {{IPA|/u/}}). It has a more open counterpart, the 'long' ''o'', like the vowel in 'low' (
International Phonetic Alphabet IPA: {{IPA|/o/}}). There are shorter, and thus more open, counterparts to each of these, with the short close ''o'' sometimes corresponding with the long open ''a''. The close back vowels often use the consonant ''w'' to indicate their quality.
Two basic
diphthongs exist: an open vowel followed by ''y'' (''ay''), and an open vowel followed by ''w'' (''aw''). These were originally full diphthongs, but many dialects have converted them to ''e'' and ''o'' respectively.
The so-called 'emphatic' consonants (see the next section) cause all vowels to become mid-centralised.
Consonants
The various alphabets used for writing Aramaic languages have twenty-two letters (all of which are consonants). Some of these letters, though, can stand for two or three different sounds (usually a
Stop consonant plosive and a
fricative at the same point of articulation). Aramaic classically uses a series of lightly contrasted plosives and fricatives:
* Labial set: ''p''/''f'' and ''b''/''v'',
* Dental set: ''t''/''θ'' and ''d''/''ð'',
* Velar set: ''k''/''x'' and ''g''/''É£''.
Each member of a certain pair is written with the same letter of the alphabet in most writing systems (that is, ''p'' and ''f'' are written with the same letter), and are near
allophones.
A distinguishing feature of Aramaic phonology (and that of Semitic languages in general) is the presence of 'emphatic' consonants. These are consonants that are pronounced with the root of the tongue retracted, with varying degrees of
pharyngealization and
velarisation. Using their alphabetic names, these emphatics are:
* {{unicode|Ḥêṯ}}, a
voiceless pharyngeal fricative,
International Phonetic Alphabet IPA: /ħ/ (like the sound made breathing on glass),
* {{unicode|Ṭêṯ}}, a pharyngealized ''t'',
International Phonetic Alphabet IPA: /{{IPA|tË?}}/,
* {{unicode|ʽAyn}}, a pharyngealized
glottal stop (sometimes considered to be a
voiced pharyngeal fricative),
International Phonetic Alphabet IPA: /{{IPA|Ê•}}/ or /{{IPA|Ê”Ë?}}/,
* {{unicode|á¹¢Ä?á¸?ê}}, a pharyngealized ''s'',
International Phonetic Alphabet IPA: /{{IPA|sË?}}/,
* {{unicode|Qôp̄}}, an
uvular ''k'' (a
voiceless uvular plosive),
International Phonetic Alphabet IPA: /q/.
{{listen|filename=Aramaic_emphatics.ogg|title=The emphatic consonants of Aramaic|description=|format=
Ogg}}
Ancient Aramaic may have had a larger series of emphatics. Not all dialects of Aramaic give these consonants their historic values.
Overlapping with the set of emphatics are the 'guttural' consonants. They include {{unicode|Ḥêṯ}} and {{unicode|ʽAyn}} from the emphatic set, and add {{unicode|ʼĀlap̄}} (a
glottal stop) and {{unicode|Hê}} (as the English 'h').
Aramaic classically has a set of four
sibilant consonant sibilants (Ancient Aramaic may have had six):
* /s/ (as in English 'sea'),
* /z/ (as in English 'zero'),
* /{{IPA|ʃ}}/ (as in English 'ship'),
* /{{IPA|sË?}}/ (the emphatic {{unicode|á¹¢Ä?á¸?ê}} listed above).
In addition to these sets, Aramaic has the
nasal consonants ''m'' and ''n'', and the
approximant consonant approximants ''r'' (usually an
alveolar trill), ''l'', ''y'' and ''w''.
Historical sound changes
Six broad features of sound change can be seen as dialect differentials:
# Vowel change — This occurs almost too frequently to document fully, but is a major distinctive feature of different dialects.
# Plosive/fricative pair reduction — Originally, Aramaic, like
Tiberian Hebrew, had fricatives as conditioned
allophones for each plosive. In the wake of vowel changes, the distinction eventually became phonemic; still later, it was often lost in certain dialects. For example,
Turoyo language Turoyo has mostly lost /p/, using /f/ instead; other dialects (for instance, standard
Assyrian Neo-Aramaic) have lost /θ/ and /ð/ and replaced them with /t/ and /d/. In most dialects of Modern Syriac, /f/ and /v/ become /w/ after a vowel.
# Loss of emphatics — Some dialects have replaced emphatic consonants with non-emphatic counterparts, while those spoken in the
Caucasus often have
glottal consonant glottalized rather than
pharyngealization pharyngealized emphatics.
# Guttural assimilation — This is the main feature of Samaritan pronunciation, also found in
Samaritan Hebrew: all the gutturals are reduced to a simple glottal stop. Some Modern Aramaic dialects do not pronounce ''h'' in all words (the third person masculine pronoun 'hu' becomes 'ow').
# Proto-Semitic */θ/ */ð/ are reflected in Aramaic as */t/, */d/, whereas they became sibilants in Hebrew (the number three in Hebrew is 'Å¡Ä?lôš', but '{{unicode|tlÄ?ṯ}}' in Aramaic). Dental/sibilant shifts are still happening in the modern dialects.
# New phonetic inventory — Modern dialects have borrowed sounds from the surrounding, dominant languages. The usual inventory is /{{IPA|ʒ}}/ (as the first consonant in 'azure'), /{{IPA|ʤ}}/ (as in 'jam') and /{{IPA|ʧ}}/ (as in 'church'). The
Syriac alphabet has been adapted for writing these new sounds.
Grammar
As with other Semitic languages, Aramaic
morphology (linguistics) morphology (the way words are put together) is based on the
triliteral root. The root consists of three consonants and has a basic meaning, for example, ''k-t-b'' has the meaning of 'writing'. This is then modified by the addition of vowels and other consonants to create different nuances of the basic meaning:
* ''{{unicode|KṯÄ?ḇâ}}'', handwriting, inscription, script, book.
* ''{{unicode|KṯÄ?ḇê}}'', the Scriptures.
* ''{{unicode|KÄ?ṯûḇâ}}'', secretary, scribe.
* ''{{unicode|KṯÄ?ḇeṯ}}'', I wrote.
* ''{{unicode|Eḵtûḇ}}'', I shall write.
{{listen|filename=kthovo.ogg|title=Aramaic words based on the triliteral root ''k-t-b''|description=|format=
Ogg}}
Aramaic has two grammatical genders, masculine and feminine. Nouns can be either singular or plural, but an additional 'dual' number exists for nouns that usually come in pairs. The dual number gradually disappeared from Aramaic over time and has little influence in Middle and Modern Aramaic.
Aramaic nouns and adjectives can exist in one of three states; these states correspond in part to the role of cases in other languages. The 'absolute' state is the basic form of a noun (for example, ''{{unicode|kṯâḇâ}}'', 'handwriting'). The 'construct' state is a truncated form of the noun used to make possessive phrases (for example, ''{{unicode|kṯÄ?ḇaṯ malkṯâ}}'', 'the handwriting of the queen). The 'emphatic' or 'determined' state is an extended form of the noun that functions a bit like a definite article (which Aramaic lacks; for example, ''{{unicode|kṯÄ?ḇtâ}}'', 'the handwriting'). In time, the construct state began to be replaced by other possessive phrases, and the emphatic state became the norm in most dialects. Most dialects of Modern Aramaic use only the emphatic state.
The various forms of possessive phrases (for 'the handwriting of the queen') are:
# ''{{unicode|KṯÄ?ḇaṯ malkṯâ}}'' — The oldest construction: the possessed object is in the construct state.
# ''{{unicode|KṯÄ?ḇtâ d(î)-malkṯâ}}'' — Both words are in the emphatic state and the relative particle ''d(î)-'' is used to mark the relationship.
# ''{{unicode|KṯÄ?ḇtÄ?h d(î)-malkṯâ}}'' — Both words are in the emphatic state, and the relative particle is used, but the possessed is given an anticipatory, pronominal ending (literally, 'her writing, that (of) the queen').
In Modern Aramaic, the last form is by far the most common. In Biblical Aramaic, the last form is virtually absent.{{listen|filename=kthovath malktho.ogg|title=Different variations of the possessive construction in Aramaic|description=|format=
Ogg}}
The Aramaic verb has six 'conjugations' or stems: alterations to the verbal root that can mark the
passive voice (''{{unicode.html">grammatical tense
tenses: the perfect and the imperfect. In Imperial Aramaic, the
participle began to be used for a
historic present. Perhaps under influence from other languages, Middle Aramaic developed a system of composite tenses (combinations of forms of the verb with pronouns or an
auxiliary verb), allowing for narrative that is more vivid.
The syntax of Aramaic (the way sentences are put together) usually follows the order verb-subject-object (VSO).
See also
Background
*
Afro-Asiatic languages
*
Semitic languages
*
Aram
*
Aramaean
Writing systems
*
Aramaic alphabet
*
Hebrew alphabet
*
Mandaic alphabet
*
Phoenician alphabet
*
Syriac alphabet
Historical forms
*
Biblical Aramaic
*
Aramaic of Hatra
*
Aramaic of Jesus
*
Syriac language
*
Mandaic language
Literature
*
Book of Ezra
*
Book of Daniel
*
Targum
*
Midrash
*
Talmud
*
Peshitta
*
Ephrem the Syrian
Modern Aramaic languages
{{neo-aramaic}}
Aramaic in Film
the following films are in Aramaic
The Passion of Christ[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_passion_recut]
References
* Beyer, Klaus (1986). ''The Aramaic language: its distribution and subdivisions''. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-53573-2.
* Casey, Maurice (1998). ''Aramaic sources of Mark's Gospel''. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-633141-1.
* Frank, Yitzchak (2003). ''Grammar for Gemara & Targum Onkelos'' (expanded edition). Feldheim Publishers / Ariel Institute. ISBN 1-58330-606-4.
* Heinrichs, Wolfhart (ed.) (1990). ''Studies in Neo-Aramaic''. Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press. ISBN 1-55540-430-8.
* Hoffman, Joel M. (2004). ''In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language''. New York, NYU Press. ISBN 0814736904.
* Nöldeke, Theodor. (2001). Compendious Syriac Grammar. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 1-57506-050-7.
* Rosenthal, Franz (1995). ''A Grammar of Biblical Aramaic'' (6th, rev. ed.). Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden. ISBN 3-447-03590-0.
* Sokoloff, Michael. (2002). A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic. Bar-Ilan UP; Johns Hopkins UP. ISBN 965-226-260-9.
* Sokoloff, Michael. (2002). A Dictionary of Jewish Palestinian Aramaic (2nd ed.). Bar-Ilan UP; Johns Hopkins UP. ISBN 965-226-101-7.
* Stevenson, William B. (1962). ''Grammar of Palestinian Jewish Aramaic'' (2nd ed.). Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815419-4.
External links
{{InterWiki|code=arc}}
-
Ethnologue report for Aramaic
-
Semitisches Tonarchiv: Dokumentgruppe "Aramäisch" — recordings of modern Aramaic (text in German)
-
Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon — at the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati
-
Aramaic Language Yahoo! Group
-
Jewish Language Research Website: Jewish Aramaic
-
Jerusalem Post article on Aramaic use in Israel
{{featured article}}
Category:Assyria
Category:Aramaic languages
Category:Jewish languages
Category:Languages of Asia
Category:Semitic languages
ar:آرامية (لغة)
arc:Ü?ܪܡÜ?Ü?
br:Yezhoù aramaek
ca:Arameu
cs:Aramejština
de:Aramäische Sprache
es:Idioma arameo
eo:Aramea lingvo
fr:Araméen
ga:Aramais
ko:아람어
id:Bahasa Aram
it:Lingua aramaica
he:×?רמית
la:Lingua Aramaica
nl:Aramees
ja:アラム語
ms:Bahasa Aram
no:Arameisk
nn:Arameisk språk
pl:Język aramejski
pt:Aramaico
ru:Ð?рамейÑ?кий Ñ?зык
simple:Aramaic
sk:AramejÄ?ina
sl:AramejÅ¡Ä?ina
fi:Aramean kieli
sv:Arameiska
tr:Aramice
zh:亚拉姆è¯
see
Aramaic language
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