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Carolus Linnaeus
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Image:Carl von Linné.jpg right|thumb|Carolus Linnaeus
'''Carl Linnaeus''', also known after his
nobility ennoblement as {{Audio|sv-Carl_von_Linné.ogg|'''Carl von Linné'''}}, (
May 23,
1707 –
January 10,
1778), was a
Sweden Swedish botanist,
physician and
zoologist[Stafleu, F.A. (1976-1998) ''Taxonomic Literature'' second edition. An authoritative work on the names of botanists, their works and publication data, issued under the auspices of the IAPT.] who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of
nomenclature. He is also considered one of the fathers of modern
ecology (see
Ecology (history) History of ecology).
Name
The name of this botanist comes in different variants: 'Carl Linnaeus', 'Carolus Linnaeus' and 'Carl von Linné', sometimes just 'Carl Linné'. There is often confusion about his real (Swedish) name, as opposed to the Latinized form 'Carolus Linnaeus' he used most when he published his scientific works (in Latin).
In Linnaeus' time, most Swedes had no surnames. Linnaeus' grandfather was named Ingemar Bengtsson (son of Bengt), according to Scandinavian tradition. Linnaeus' father was known as Nils Ingemarsson (son of Ingemar). Only for registration purposes, for example when matriculating at a university, one needed a surname. In the academic world, Latin was the language of choice, so when Linnaeus' father went to the
University of Lund, he coined himself a Latin surname: Linnaeus, referring to a large
Tilia cordata linden tree[http://linnaeus.nrm.se/flora/di/tilia/tilia/tilicor.html]
on the family property Linnagård ('Linn' being a now obsolete Swedish variant of 'Lind'; the linden tree). Nils Ingemarsson Linnaeus gave his son the name Carl. So the Swedish name of the boy was Carl Linnaeus
[Stearn, W.T. (1992), ''Botanical Latin'', fourth edition: p. 283-284, Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. ISBN:0-88192-321-4.].
When Carl Linnaeus enrolled as student at the University of Lund, he was registered as 'Carolus Linnaeus'. This Latinized form was the name he used when he published his works in Latin. After he was ennobled, in 1761
[W.T. Stearn, (1957), ''An introduction to the Species Plantarum and cognate botanical works of Carl Linnaeus'', Principal events in the life of Linnaeus; in: Carl Linnaeus, ''Species Plantarum'', A Facsimile of the first edition 1753, Volume I: 14, Ray Society, London.], he took the name Carl von Linné. 'Linné' is thus a shortened version of 'Linnaeus', 'von' is added to signify his ennoblement.
When referring to or citing the author Linnaeus, it is appropriate to use 'Carl Linnaeus', 'Carolus Linnaeus' or just 'Linnaeus'. 'Carl von Linné' seems to be less suitable, especially for the works he published before 1762. On the title page of the second edition of ''Species plantarum'' (1762) the author's name is still printed as 'Carolus Linnaeus' (or rather the
genetive form 'Caroli Linnaei') but from then on, his name is quite consistently printed as 'Carolus '''a''' Linne' or 'Carl von Linné'. Stafleu
uses 'Carl Linnaeus' as the author's name for all his works.
Biography
Carl Linnaeus was born on a farm in May 23 1707. The farm was called
RÃ¥shult in
Älmhult Municipality, the province of
Småland in southern
Sweden. Like his father and maternal grandfather, Linnaeus was groomed as a youth to be a churchman, but he showed little enthusiasm for it. His interest in
botany impressed a physician from his town and he was sent to study at
Lund University, transferring to
Uppsala University after one year.
Linnaeus had been impressed by what he read about the
stamens and
Carpel pistils of
flowers as sexual organs. At Uppsala he wrote a short work on the subject himself that earned him a position at the Botanical Gardens.
Image:Carl Linnaeus dressed as a Laplander.jpg thumb|left|Carl Linnaeus dressed in native Lapp costume.
In
1732 the Academy of Sciences at
Uppsala financed his expedition to explore
Laponia Lapland, then virtually unknown. The result of this was firstly ''The Florula Lapponica'' (the first work to use the Sexual System) and later the ''Flora Lapponica'' published in
1737.
In 1735 Linnaeus moved to the continent. In the
Netherlands he earned his one and only academic degree. He also met
Jan Frederik Gronovius and showed him a draft of his work on taxonomy, the ''
Systema Naturae''. This was published in the Netherlands the same year, as an eleven page work.
By the time it reached its 10th edition (1758), it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. In it, the unwieldy names mostly used at the time, such as "''Physalis amno ramosissime ramis angulosis glabris foliis dentoserratis''", were supplemented with concise and now familiar "binomials", composed of the generic name, followed by a specific epithet, e.g. ''
Physalis angulata''. These binomials could serve as a label to refer to the species. Higher taxa were constructed and arranged in a simple and orderly manner. Although the system, now known as
binomial nomenclature, was developed by the Bauhin brothers (see
Gaspard Bauhin and
Johann Bauhin) almost 200 years earlier, Linnaeus was the first to use it consistently throughout the work, also in monospecific genera, and may be said to have popularized it within the scientific community.
Linnaeus named taxa in ways that personally struck him as common-sensical; for example, human beings are ''Homo sapiens'' (see
sapience). He also briefly described a ''second'' human species, ''Homo
troglodytes'' ("cave-dwelling man"). This was however likely a confusion originating from exaggerated second- or third-hand accounts of the
Common Chimpanzee chimpanzee (currently most often placed in a different genus, as ''
Pan troglodytes''). The group "
mammalia" are named for their mammary glands because one of the defining characteristics of mammals is that they nurse their young.
In
1739 Linnaeus married Sara Morea, daughter of a physician. He ascended to the chair of medicine at Uppsala two years later, soon exchanging it for the chair of Botany. He continued to work on his classifications, extending them to the kingdom of animals and the kingdom of minerals. The last may seem somewhat odd, but the theory of
evolution was still a long time away. Linnaeus was only attempting a convenient way of categorizing the elements of the natural world. Still, Linnaeus' research had begun to take science on a path that diverged from what had been taught by religious authorities; the local Lutheran
Archbishop had accused him of "impiety." In a letter [http://linnaeus.c18.net/Letters/display_txt.php?id_letter=L0783] to
Johann Georg Gmelin dated
February 25,
1747, Linnaeus wrote:
{|
| width="50%" valign="top" |
* Original Latin
''Non placet, quod Hominem inter ant[h]ropomorpha collocaverim, sed homo noscit se ipsum. Removeamus vocabula. Mihi perinde erit, quo nomine utamur. Sed quaero a Te et Toto orbe differentiam genericam inter hominem et Simiam, quae ex principiis Historiae naturalis. Ego certissime nullam novi. Utinam aliquis mihi unicam diceret! Si vocassem hominem simiam vel vice versa omnes in me conjecissem theologos. Debuissem forte ex lege artis.''
| width="3%" |
| valign="top" |
* An English translation
''It is not pleasing that I placed
humans among the
primates, but man knows himself. Let us get the words out of the way. It will be equal to me by whatever name they are treated. But I ask you and the whole world a generic difference between men and
simians in accordance with the principles of
Natural History. I certainly know none. If only someone would tell me one! If I called man an ape or vice versa I would bring together all the
theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to scientifically,''
|}
The Swedish king,
Adolf Frederick of Sweden Adolf Fredrik, ennobled Linnaeus in
1757, and after the privy council had confirmed the ennoblement Linnaeus took the surname '''von Linné''', later often signing just '''Carl Linné'''.
Declining in his later years, Linnaeus suffered from a series of strokes in 1774. He died four years later, in 1778.
Linnaean taxonomy
image:Systema Naturae cover.jpg thumb|right|Title page of the 1760 edition of ''[[Systema Naturae''.]]
Taxonomists, in almost any biological field, have heard of Carolus Linnaeus. His prime contribution was to get two part names for species of plants and animals accepted (binomial names, scientific names): the work of Linnaeus represents the starting point of
binomial nomenclature. In addition Linnaeus developed, during the great
18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, what became known as the '''
Linnaean taxonomy'''; the system of
scientific classification now widely used in the
biology biological sciences.
The Linnaean system classified nature within a
hierarchy, starting with three
Kingdom (biology) kingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into Classes and they, in turn, into Orders, which were divided into Genera (singular: genus), which were divided into Species (singular: species). Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank (for plants these are now called "varieties"). Since then very many other ranks have been added, most notably phyla (singular: phylum) or divisions between kingdoms and classes, and families (between order and genus). Groups of organisms at any rank are now called ''taxa'' (singular: taxon) or ''taxonomic groups''.
The task of identifying and describing all living species is called the
Linnaean enterprise by modern ecologists.
His groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics. Although the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since Linnaeus' conception, as well as the principles behind them, he is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics.
Linnaeus was also a pioneer in defining the concept of "
race". Within ''Homo sapiens'' he proposed four taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank. These categories are, ''Americanus'', ''Asiaticus'', ''Africanus'', and ''Europeanus''. They were based on place of origin at first, and later skin color. Each race had certain characteristics that members supposedly had. Native Americans were reddish, stubborn, and angered easily. Africans were black, relaxed and negligent. Asians were sallow, avaricious, and easily distracted. Europeans were white, gentle, and inventive. Linnaeus's races were clearly skewed in favour of Europeans. Over time, this classification led to a racial hierarchy, in which Europeans were at the top.
Students
His students include such renowned botanists as
Pehr Kalm (from
Finland) and
Daniel Solander (from
Sweden).
See also 's
:category: students of Linnaeus.
Other accomplishments
Image:Autograph of Carolus Linnaeus.jpg thumb|250px|[[Signature of Carolus Linnaeus (Carl v. Linné).]]
Image:100 kronor swedish.jpg thumb|250px|Carolus Linnaeus pictured on the Swedish 100 [[Swedish krona|kronor bank note]]
*Linnaeus is considered one of the finest writers of Swedish prose. His travel journals contain pithy notes on everything of interest he encountered, not just plants. He didn't just write from personal interest, but as a reporter to the enlightened scientific and political public. His journey to sub-Arctic Lapland is notable for exotic and adventurous episodes. He also composed some down-to-earth sex-instruction lectures published as "Om sättet att tillhopa gå" [How to go together].
*Linnaeus' original botanical garden may still be seen in
Uppsala.
*He originated the practice of using the ♂ - (shield and arrow)
Mars (planet) Mars and ♀ - (hand mirror)
Venus (planet) Venus glyphs as the symbol for
male and
female.
*His picture can be found on the current Swedish 100
swedish krona kronor bank notes [http://www.riksbank.com/templates/Page.aspx?id=10571].
*Linnaeus was one of the founders of the
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
*Linnaeus is the only botanist currently referred to by a single initial: L. (Previously, the abbreviation assigned was Linn.) In
botany, the names, abbreviated, of the botanists who first describe and codify a species follow immediately after the scientific name. For example, ''Cocos nucifera'' L. is the complete scientific name for the
coconut, with the "L." referring to Carolus Linnaeus.
*Linnaeus was said to be a man of great social skills.
Erik Axel Karlfeldt's words "han talte med bönder på bönders vis, och med lärde män på latin" [he talked to
peasants as peasants do, and to learned men in
Latin] give a good characterization of his manner.
*He was one of the pioneers in the field of
chronobiology, and created the "
Petal Time Clock". His findings found that different species of flowers open at different times everyday. For example, he discovered that the
hawksbeard plant, opened its flowers at 6:30 am, whereas another species, the
hawkbit, did not open its flowers until 7 am. After much research into this, he soon concluded that one could tell the time of day simply by watching the flowers in their garden.
See also
*
Carolus Linnaeus the Younger. Linnaeus's son, also named Carl Linnaeus and also a botanist, is commonly so referred with ''filius'' (abbreviated "L. f.") to distinguish him from his famous father.
*
Linnean Society of London
*
Linnaeus Arboretum
*
Jonas C. Dryander
*
Carl Peter Thunberg
*
Frederik Hasselquist
*
Peter Artedi
Notes and references
External links
{{Commons|Carolus Linnaeus}}
-
Linnaeus Botanical Garden
-
Biography at the Department of Systematic Botany,
Uppsala University University of Uppsala
-
Biography at The Linnean Society of London
-
Biography at the University of California Museum of Paleontology
-
The Linnaean Correspondence
-
Carl Linnaeus - The World's First Round Cultured Pearls
{{botanist|L.|Linnaeus, Carolus Linnaeus}}
{{Persondata
|NAME=Linnaeus, Carolus
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Linné, Carl von
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=
botanist and
physician
|DATE OF BIRTH=
1707-
May 23 05-23
|PLACE OF BIRTH=
Älmhult Municipality Älmhult,
Sweden
|DATE OF DEATH=
1778-
January 10 01-10
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
Category:1707 births Linnaeus, Carolus
Category:1778 deaths Linnaeus, Carolus
Category:Swedish botanists Linnaeus, Carolus
Category:Swedish biologists Linnaeus, Carolus
Category:Swedish mammalogists Linnaeus, Carolus
Category:Swedish ornithologists Linnaeus, Carolus
Category:Swedish physicians Linnaeus, Carolus
Category:Swedish people Linnaeus, Carolus
Category:Botanists with author abbreviations Linnaeus, Carolus
Category:Algologists Linnaeus, Carolus
Category:Arachnologists Linnaeus, Carolus
Category:Bryologists Linnaeus, Carolus
Category:Pteridologists Linnaeus, Carolus
Category:Mycologists Linnaeus, Carolus
ar:كاروليوس لينيوس
bg:Карл Линей
zh-min-nan:Carolus Linnaeus
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de:Carl von Linné
et:Karl von Linné
el:ΚάÏ?ολος Λινναίος
es:Carl von Linné
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fr:Carl von Linné
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ga:Carl von Linné
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ko:칼 � 린네
hr:Carl Linné
ilo:Carolus Linnaeus
id:Carolus Linnaeus
is:Carl von Linné
it:Carl von Linné
he:ק×?רלוס ×œ×™× ×™×?וס
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lt:Karlas LinÄ—jus
hu:Carl von Linné
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no:Carl von Linné
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pt:Lineu
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ru:Линней, Карл
sco:Carolus Linnaeus
sh:Karl fon Line
sk:Carl Linné
sl:Carl von Linné
sr:Карл фон Лине
fi:Carl von Linné
sv:Carl von Linné
tr:Carl Linnaeus
uk:Лінней Карл
zh:�尔·林奈
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