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Finno-Ugric languages
*** Shopping-Tip: Finno-Ugric languages
Image:Finno_Ugric_Languages.png thumb|400px|Approximate geographical distribution of areas where indigenous Finno-Ugric languages are spoken. Diagonal patterns indicate sparsely populated areas. Dotted lines mark boundaries of corresponding subnational administrative units.
The '''Finno-Ugric languages''' form a subfamily of the
Uralic languages. The majority of linguists believe that
Hungarian language Hungarian,
Finnish language Finnish and
Estonian language Estonian, among other languages, should be included in the group. Unlike most of the other languages spoken in
Europe, the Finno-Ugric languages are not part of the
Indo-European family of languages. The Uralic languages also include the
Samoyedic languages, and some linguists use the terms Finno-Ugric and Uralic as synonyms. Many of the smaller Finno-Ugric languages are endangered and near extinction.
Origins
The "
Urheimat" of
Proto-Finno-Ugric, the hypothetical
proto-language of the modern Finno-Ugric languages, cannot be located with any certainty. The area that lies in what is now central and northern European Russia (i.e., west of the
Ural mountains) is generally assumed as a likely candidate, at a time of maybe the
3rd millennium BC. This is based on the
linguistic migration theory, which appears to suggest a "centre of gravity" somewhere around the middle
Volga River, and on reconstructed plant and animal names (notably including
spruce,
Siberian pine,
Siberian Fir,
Siberian larch,
brittle willow/
elm, and
hedgehog). Reconstructed Proto-Finno-Ugric contains
Indo-Iranian languages Indo-Iranian loanwords, notably the words for "honeybee" and "honey", probably from the time when Indo-Iranian tribes (such as
Scythians and
Sarmatians) inhabited the Eurasian steppes.
There is evidence that before the arrival of the
Slavic tribes Slavic speaking tribes to the area of modern-day
Russia, speakers of Finno-Ugric languages may have been scattered across the whole area between the Urals and the
Baltic Sea. This was the distribution of the
Comb Ceramic Culture, a stone age culture which appears to have corresponded to the Finno-Ugric speaking populations, c.
4200 BC–c.
2000 BC.
There have been attempts to relate the Finno-Ugric languages to the
Indo-European languages, but there are not enough similarities to link them with any certainty. Similar inflectional endings exist, but whether or not they are genetically related is not resolvable. Common lexicon not attestable to borrowing is thin, and no sound laws are established. Conversely, there have been suggestions that the
Germanic languages evolved from an Indo-European language such as
Celtic languages Celtic imposed on a
Finnic Substratum substrate, but no satisfactory proof yet exists.
A portion of the Baltic-Finnic lexicon is not shared with the remaining Finno-Ugric languages and may be due to a pre-Finnic
Substratum substrate, which may coincide in part with the substrate of the
Indo-European Baltic languages. As far as the
Sami people Sami (''Lappic'') languages are concerned, a hypothesis has been advanced that the ancestors of the
Sami people Sami originally spoke a different language, but adopted their current tongue under the pressure of their Finnic-speaking neighbours.
According to data obtained in several representative studies on the genes of Europeans, strong presence of genetic lines which can be associated with the modern Finnic-speaking peoples are found throughout northern Europe from the British Isles to the Ural area.
According to the interpretation of the geneticists who conducted the study, the ancestors of modern Germanic and Slavic-speaking peoples were in fact largely speakers of Finno-Ugric languages at some earlier time. Weak presence of the genes which could associate them with, for example, the earliest Indo-European peoples indicates that the Indo-European languages were taken over from more advanced, but less numerous, newcomers as a part of "cultural package" at the time of the Neolithic Revolution - shift from gathering to agriculture. Thus, the Finno-Ugric languages and their modern speakers do not originate in the area near Ural mountains, but rather likely were one of the three indigenous European ethnic groups, which together provided about 80% of modern European genetic material. Proto-Finno-Ugric was perhaps the original language of North-East Europe. Going back further in time, according to Kalevi Wiik, the earliest Finno-Ugric speakers and their languages were likely to originate from the territory of modern Ukraine (so-called “Ukrainian refuge�) during the last
Ice Age glacial period, when the whole of northern Europe was covered with ice.
It should be noted that genes do not necessarily correlate with languages, and that many of the above interpretations given by geneticists are not accepted by the majority of archaeologists and linguists, most of whom still put the Finno-Ugric Urheimat in the central or northeastern part of European Russia or the area of the
Ural Mountains in
Neolithic Europe, identifying it with the
Comb Ceramic culture. Wiik’s interpretation of Neolithic farmers as early Indo-Europeans also contradicts the prevailing
Kurgan hypothesis.
Wiik's theories have strong opposition in traditional linguistics. Many see his theories as unscientific.
History
The first mention of a Uralic people is in
Tacitus' ''
Germania (book) Germania'', mentioning the Finns as adjacent to Germanic territory. In the late
15th century, European scholars noted the resemblance of the names ''Hungaria'' and ''Yugria'', the names of settlements east of the Ural. They assumed a connection, but did not look into linguistic evidence. In
1671,
Sweden Swedish scholar
Georg Stiernhielm commented on the similarities of Lapp, Estonian and Finnish, and also on a few similar words in Finnish and Hungarian, while the
Germany German scholar
Martin Vogel tried to establish a relationship between Finnish, Lapp and Hungarian. These two authors were thus the first to outline what was to become the classification of a Finno-Ugric family. In
1717, Swedish professor
Olaus Rudbeckius, Jr. Olof Rudbeck proposed about 100 etymologies connecting Finnish and Hungarian, of which about 40 are still considered valid (Collinder, 1965). In the same year, the German scholar
J. G. von Eckhart (published in
Gottfried Leibniz Leibniz' ''Collectanea Etymologica'') for the first time proposed a relation to the
Samoyedic languages. By
1770, all constituents of Finno-Ugric were known, almost 20 years before the traditional starting-point of
Indo-European studies. Nonetheless, these relationships were not widely accepted. Especially Hungarian intellectuals were not interested in the theory and preferred to assume connections with
Turkic peoples Turkic tribes, an attitude characterized by Ruhlen (1987) as due to "the wild unfettered Romanticism of the epoch". Still, in spite of the hostile climate, the Hungarian
Society of Jesus Jesuit J. Sajnovics suggested a relationship of Hungarian and Lapp in 1770, and in
1799, the Hungarian
Samuel Gyarmathi published the most complete work on Finno-Ugric to that date.
At the beginning of the
19th century, research on Finno-Ugric was thus more advanced than Indo-European research. But the rise of Indo-European comparative linguistics absorbed so much attention and enthusiasm that Finno-Ugric linguistics was all but eclipsed in Europe; in Hungary, the only European country that would have had a vested interest in the family (Finland and Estonia being
Imperial Russia under Russian rule), the political climate was too hostile for the development of Uralic comparative linguistics. Some progress was made, however, culminating in the work of the German
Jozsef Budenz, who for 20 years was the leading Finno-Ugric specialist in Hungary. Another late-19th-century contribution is that of Hungarian linguist
Ignac Halasz, who published extensive comparative material of Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic in the
1890s, and whose work is at the base of the wide acceptance of the Samoyed-Finno-Ugric relationship today.
During the
1990s, linguists Kalevi Wiik, Janos Pusztay and Ago Künnap and historian Kyösti Julku announced a "breakthrough in Present-Day Uralistics", dating Proto-Finnic to 10,000 BC. The theory was almost entirely unsuccessful in the scientific community (cf. Merlijn de Smit, see external links).
Structural features
All of the Finno-Ugric languages share structural features and basic vocabulary. Around 200 basic words have been proposed and include word stems for concepts related to humans such as names for relatives and body parts. This common vocabulary includes, according to
Lyle Campbell, at least 55 words related to fishing, 33 related to hunting and eating animals, 12 related to
reindeer, 17 related to plant foods, 31 related to technology, 26 related to building, 11 related to clothing, 18 related to climate, 4 related to society, 11 related to religion, and 3 related to commerce, giving an interesting picture of proto-Finno-Ugric society.
The structural features are seen by linguists as strong evidence for a common ancestry. These include
inflection by adding
suffixes (instead of
prepositions as in
English language English). The Finno-Ugric languages are also famous for having a large number of grammatical
Declension cases, of which Finnish has at least 15 and Hungarian has at least 24.
Another feature of the Finno-Ugric languages is that
verbs are
Inflection inflected, i.e.
Grammatical conjugation conjugated, by person and number. (This is the familiar way verbs are conjugated in most
Indo-European languages; but
Chinese language Chinese,
Vietnamese language Vietnamese and other
isolating languages do not share this feature.)
Finally, the Finno-Ugric languages lack
possessive adjectives and
possessive pronouns, such as ''my'' and ''your'', communicating the same information via
declension. In some languages, the
Genitive case genitive of the personal pronoun is used to express possession. Examples:
Estonian language Estonian ''mu koer'' 'my dog' (literally 'I-gen. dog'),
Northern Sami ''mu beana'' 'my dog' (literally 'I-gen. dog') or ''beatnagan'' 'my dog' (literally 'dog-my'). In others, a pronominal suffix is used, optionally together with the genitive case of a pronoun: thus
Finnish language Finnish ''(minun) koirani'', 'my dog' (literally 'I-gen. dog-my'), from ''koira'' "dog". Similarly, Hungarian, lacking possessive adjectives, uses possessive noun suffixes, optionally together with pronouns; cf. 'the dog' = ''a kutya'' vs. 'my dog' = ''az én kutyám'' (literally, 'the I dog-my') or simply ''a kutyám'' (literally, 'the dog-my').
Hungarian language Hungarian, however, does have independent possessive pronouns; e.g. ''enyém'' 'mine', ''tiéd'' 'yours', etc. These are declined; e.g.
Nominative case nom. ''enyém'',
Accusative case acc. ''enyémet'',
Dative case dat. ''enyémnek'', etc.
Classification
It is generally agreed that the '''Finno-Ugric''' subfamily of the
Uralic languages has the following members:
'''
Ugric languages Ugric''' (Ugrian)
* Hungarian
**
Hungarian language Hungarian
* Ob Ugric (Ob Ugrian)
**
Khanty language Khanty (''Ostyak'')
**
Mansi language Mansi (''Vogul'')
'''
Finno-Permic languages Finno-Permic''' (Permian-Finnic)
*
Permic languages Permic (Permian)
**
Komi-Zyrian language Komi (''Komi-Zyrian'', ''Zyrian'')
**
Komi-Permyak language Komi-Permyak
**
Udmurt language Udmurt (''Votyak'')
*
Finno-Volgaic languages Finno-Volgaic (Finno-Cheremisic, Finno-Mari, Volga-Finnic)
** Mari (Cheremisic)
***
Mari language Mari (''Cheremis'')
**
Mordvinic languages Mordvinic (Mordvin, Mordvinian)
***
Erzya language Erzya
***
Moksha language Moksha
** Extinct Finno-Volgaic languages of uncertain position
***
Merya language Merya (position uncertain, extinct)
***
Meshcherian language Meshcherian (position uncertain, extinct)
***
Muromian language Muromian (position uncertain, extinct)
**
Finno-Lappic languages Finno-Lappic (Finno-Saamic, Finno-Samic)
***
Sami languages Sami (Samic, Saamic, ''Lappic'', ''Lappish'')
**** Western Sami (Western Samic)
*****
Southern Sami
*****
Ume Sami — Nearly extinct
*****
Lule Sami
*****
Pite Sami — Nearly extinct
*****
Northern Sami
**** Eastern Sami (Eastern Samic)
*****
Kainuu Sami — Extinct
*****
Kemi Sami — Extinct
*****
Inari Sami
*****
Akkala Sami — Nearly extinct
*****
Kildin Sami
*****
Skolt Sami
*****
Ter Sami — Nearly extinct
***
Baltic-Finnic languages Baltic-Finnic (Balto-Finnic, Balto-Fennic, Finnic, Fennic)
****
Estonian language Estonian
****
Finnish language Finnish - including
Meänkieli (a.k.a. ''Tornedalen'' or ''
Tornedalian'' Finnish),
Kainu (a.k.a. ''
Kven'' Finnish) and
Ingrian Finnish
****
Izhorian language Izhorian (Ingrian) - Nearly extinct
****
Karelian language Karelian
*****
Karelian language Karelian proper
*****
Ludic language Lude (Ludic, Ludian)
*****
Olonets Karelian (Livvi, Aunus, Aunus Karelian, Olonetsian)
****
Livonian language Livonian (Liv) — Nearly extinct
****
Veps language Veps (Vepsian)
****
Votic language Votic (Votian, Vod) — Nearly extinct
****
Võro language Võro and
Seto language Seto (sometimes considered dialects of
Estonian language Estonian)
Disputes
The classification of Finno-Ugric within Uralic, and of Finnic and Ugric within Finno-Ugric, is accepted by practically all scholars. Dispute is at present largely confined to the Finno-Permic family, surrounding different proposals for the arrangement of the its subgroups and regarding the validity of the ''Volgaic'' group.
The term Volgaic denoted a branch believed to include Mari and Mordvinic languages, but it has now become obsolete: research has shown that it was a geographic classification rather than a linguistic one. The Mordvinic languages are more closely related to the Finno-Lappic languages than they are to the Mari languages.
Another dispute surrounds the affinity of the
Yukaghir languages, which is traditionally regarded as a
language isolate, with some scholars proposing a strong affinity to Uralic (Collinder, 1965).
The relation of the Finno-Permic and the Ugric groups is remote by some standards. With a time depth of only 3 or 4 thousand years, it is far younger than many major families such as
Indo-European languages Indo-European or
Semitic languages Semitic, and about the same age as, for instance, the
Eastern Nilotic languages Eastern subfamily of
Nilotic languages Nilotic. But the grouping is still far from transparent — the absence of early records constitutes an obstacle to exact reconstruction not found in, for example, Indo-European or Semitic. While much has been speculatively deduced about the Finno-Ugric
Urheimat, little is certain, and, of course, the relatedness of the languages does not necessarily imply any racial or cultural unity of the peoples speaking them.
Linguists criticizing the Finno-Ugric group (e.g. Angela Marcantonio, see
Finno-Ugric languages#References References) believe that Ugric and Finnic are more distantly related than proponents advertise, and possibly are no closer than the Turkic and Ugric groups. These linguists propose a
Ural-Altaic hypothesis Ural-Altaic supergroup. Such proposals do not contest the ultimate relatedness of Finno-Ugric, but rather try to include more languages (on even more tenuous grounds) into the family. Other supergroups have been advanced (Uralo-Dravidian, Finno-Basque, Hungaro-Sumerian) but are almost universally regarded as spurious.
Common vocabulary
This is a small sample of
cognates in basic vocabulary across Uralic, illustrating the sound laws (based on the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' and Hakkinen 1979). Note that in general two cognates don't have the same meaning; they merely have the same origin. Thus, the English word in each row should be regarded as an approximation of the original meaning, not a translation of the other words.
{| border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse" cellpadding="3"
|-
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" |
English language English
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" |
Finnish language Finnish
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" |
Estonian language Estonian
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" |
Northern Sami North Sami
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" |
Inari Sami
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" |
Mari language Mari
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" |
Komi language Komi
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" |
Khanty language Khanty
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" |
Hungarian language Hungarian
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | Finno-Ugric reconstruction
|-
| heart
| sydän, ''sydäm''-
| süda, ''südam''-
| Ä?otta, Ä?oddaga
| -
| šüm
| śələm
| səm
| szÃv
| *śiδä(-mɜ) / *śüδä(-mɜ)
|-
| lap
| syli
| süli
| salla, sala
| solla
| šəl
| syl
| jöl
| öl
| *süle / *sile
|-
| vein
| suoni
| soon
| suotna, suona
| suona
| šön
| sən
| jan
| Ãn 'sinew, tendon'
| *sÅ?ne / *seÌ®ne
|-
| go
| mennä, ''men''-
| minna, ''min''-
| mannat
| moonnađ
| mije-
| mun-
| mən-
| menni, megy
| *mene-
|-
| fish
| kala
| kala
| guolli, guoli
| kyeli
| kol
| -
| kul
| hal
| *kala
|-
| hand
| käsi, ''käte''-
gen. käden, part. kättä
| käsi, ''kät''-
gen. käe, part. kätt
| giehta, gieđa
| kieta
| kit
| ki
| köt
| kéz
| *käte
|-
| eye
| silmä
| silm
| Ä?albmi, Ä?almmi
| Ä?alme, Å¡alme
| Å¡inÄ?a
| śin
| sem
| szem
| *śilmä
|-
| one
| yksi, ''yhte''-
gen. yhden, part. yhtä
| üks, ''üht''-
gen. ühe, part. üht(e)
| okta, ovtta
| ohta
| ikte
| ət'ik
| Ät
| egy
| *ykte
|-
| two
| kaksi, ''kahte''-
gen. kahden, part. kahta
| kaks, ''kaht''-
gen. kahe, part. kaht(e)
| guokte
| kyeh´ti
| kokət
| kyk
| kät
| kettő/két
| *kakta / *käktä
|-
| three
| kolme
| kolm
| golbma
| kulma
| kumət
| kujim
| koləm
| három
| *kolme / *kulme
|-
| ice
| jää
| jää
| jiekŋa, jieŋa
| jiena
| ij
| ji
| jöŋk
| jég
| *jäŋe
|-
| louse
| täi
| täi
| dihkki
| tikke
| tij
| toj
| tögtəm
| tetű
| ?
|}
(Orthographical notes: The hacek (Å¡) denotes postalveolar articulation, while the accent (Å›) denotes a secondary palatal articulation. The Finnish letter 'y' [y] represents the same phoneme (a rounded or centralized [i]) as the letter 'ü' in other languages. The voiced dental spirant [ð] is the origin of the standard Finnish 'd', which is realized differently in each dialect today. The same sound is marked with the letter Ä‘ in the Sami languages. The Sami 'Ä?' is a voiceless postalveolar affricate [ʧ]. Hungarian 'gy' is the palatalized [dʲ], not a 'g'.)
Numbers
The numbers from 1 to 10 in Finnish, Estonian, Võro, North Sami, Erzya, Meadow Mari, Mansi, Hungarian, and Proto-Finno-Ugric.
{| style="border-collapse:collapse" border="1" cellpadding="3"
|-
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | Number
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | Finnish
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | Estonian
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | Võro
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | North Sami
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | Inari Sami
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | Erzya
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | Meadow Mari
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | Mansi
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | Hungarian
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | Proto-F-U
|-
| 1
| yksi
| üks
| ütś
| okta
| ohta
| vejke
| ikte
| akva
| egy
| *ykte
|-
| 2
| kaksi
| kaks
| katÅ›
| guokte
| kyeh´ti
| kavto
| kokət
| kityg
| kettő
| *kakte
|-
| 3
| kolme
| kolm
| kolm
| golbma
| kulma
| kolmo
| kumət
| hurum
| három
| *kolm-
|-
| 4
| neljä
| neli
| nelli
| njeallje
| nelji
| ńiľe
| nələt
| nila
| négy
| *neljä-
|-
| 5
| viisi
| viis
| viiÅ›
| vihtta
| vitta
| veÆe
| wizət
| at
| öt
| *vit(t)e
|-
| 6
| kuusi
| kuus
| kuuÅ›
| guhtta
| kutta
| koto
| kuδət
| hot
| hat
| *kut(t)e
|-
| 7
| seitsemän
| seitse
| säidse
| Ä?ieža
| Ä?iÄ?Ä?am
| śiśem
| šəmət
| sat
| hét
| N/A
|-
| 8
| kahdeksan
| kaheksa
| katõsa
| gávcci
| käävci
| kavkso
| kandaš(e)
| Å„ololov
| nyolc
| N/A
|-
| 9
| yhdeksän
| üheksa
| ütesä
| ovcci
| oovce
| vejkse
| indeš(e)
| ontolov
| kilenc
| N/A
|-
| 10
| kymmenen
| kümme
| kümme
| logi
| love
| kemeń
| lu
| lov
| tÃz
| N/A
|}
One reconstruction for numbers 8 and 9 is *''kak+teksa'' '10–2' and *''yk+teksa'' '10–1', where *''teksa'' cf. ''deka'' is an Indo-European loan; notice that the difference between /t/ and /d/ is not phonemic, unlike in Indo-European.
Finno-Ugric Swadesh lists
100-word Swadesh lists for certain Finno-Ugric languages can be compared and contrasted at the
Rosetta Project website:
[http://64.81.54.21:8080/live/search/contribute/swadesh/view?ethnocode=FIN Finnish], [http://64.81.54.21:8080/live/search/contribute/swadesh/view?ethnocode=EST Estonian], [http://64.81.54.21:8080/live/search/contribute/swadesh/view?ethnocode=HNG Hungarian], [http://64.81.54.21:8080/live/search/contribute/swadesh/view?ethnocode=MYV Erzya].
Notice that particularly the Finnish list is unreliable, because it contains several neologisms or formal words, e.g. ''henkilö'' (from ''henki'' life + place suffix) instead of the more commonly used ''ihminen'', which is a Baltic Finnic word. The Finnish list has also spelling errors suggesting it was compiled by a person who does not know Finnish.
See also
*
Uralic languages
*
Uralo-Siberian languages
External links
-
Some Finno-Ugrian links A more comprehensive link collection
-
FAQ about Finno-Ugrian Languages
-
Linguistic Shadow-Boxing Johanna Laakso's book review of Angela Marcantonio's "The Uralic language family. Facts, myths and statistics"
-
Uralic Linguistics Vs. Voodoo Science! A collection of links about the "new paradigm" debate by Merlijn de Smit
-
Numbers in Asian languages Counting to ten in a variety of languages
-
Ugri.info Finno-Ugric peoples infobase
*Finno-Ugric Electronic Library by the Finno-Ugric Information Center in
Syktyvkar,
Komi Republic (interface in Russian and English, texts in
Mari language Mari,
Komi language Komi,
Udmurt language Udmurt,
Erzya language Erzya and
Moksha language Moksha languages): http://library.finugor.ru/
-
The Finno-Ugrics:The dying fish swims in water The Economist, Dec 20th 2005
References
* Benkő, Loránd: Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Ungarischen (
Etymological Dictionary of Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1992-1997., ISBN 9630562278
* Collinder, Björn: Fenno-Ugric Vocabulary. Uppsala, 1955, ISBN 3871181870.
* Collinder, Björn: An introduction to the Uralic languages. Berkely, California
* Campbell, Lyle: ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction''. Edinburgh University Press 1998.
* Csepregi Márta (ed.): Finnugor kalauz (Finno-Ugric Guide). Budapest: Panoráma, 1998., ISBN 9632438620
*
Encyclopædia Britannica 15th ed.: Languages of the World: Uralic languages. Chicago, 1990.
* Häkkinen, Kaisa: ''Suomalais-ugrilaisten kielten etymologisen tutkimuksen asemasta ja ongelmista'' (''About the situation and problems of the etymological research of the Finno-Ugric languages'') (1979), in Nykysuomen rakenne ja kehitys (Structure and development of modern Finnish) volume 2, (NRJK 2) Pieksämäki 1984, ISBN 951-717-360-1.
* Laakso, Johanna: Karhunkieli. Pyyhkäisyjä suomalais-ugrilaisten kielten tutkimukseen (A Bear Tongue. Views on the Research of the Finno-Ugric Languages). Helsinki: SKS, 1999.
* Laakso, Johanna (ed.): Uralilaiset kansat (Uralic Peoples).
Porvoo -
Helsinki -
Juva: WSOY, 1992, ISBN 951-0-16485-2.
* Marcantonio, Angela: What Is the Linguistic Evidence to Support the Uralic Theory or Theories? - In ''Linguistica Uralica'' 40, 1, pp 40-45, 2004.
* Marcantonio, Angela: The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics. 2003.
* Marcantonio, Angela, Pirjo Nummenaho, and Michela Salvagni: The "Ugric-Turkic Battle": A Critical Review. In ''Linguistica Uralica'' 37, 2, pp 81-102, 2001. [http://www.kirj.ee/esi-l-lu/l37-2-1.pdf Online version].
* Ruhlen, Merritt, A Guide to the World's languages, Stanford, California (1987), pp. 64–71.
* Sammallahti, Pekka: Historical phonology of the Uralic languages. - In: Denis Sinor (ed.), ''The Uralic languages. Description, history and foreign influences.'' Leiden - New York - København - Köln: Brill, 1998.
* Sammallahti, Pekka, Matti Morottaja: Säämi - suoma - säämi škovlasänikirje (
Inari Sami -
Finnish language Finnish -
Inari Sami School Dictionary).
Helsset/
Helsinki: Ruovttueatnan gielaid dutkanguovddaš/Kotimaisten kielten tutkimuskeskus, 1983, ISBN 951-9475-36-2.
* Sammallahti, Pekka: Sámi - suoma - sámi sátnegirji (
Northern Sami -
Finnish language Finnish -
Northern Sami Dictionary).
Ohcejohka/
Utsjoki: Girjegiisá, 1993, ISBN 951-8939-28-4.
* Sinor, Denis (ed.): ''Studies in Finno-Ugric Linguistics: In Honor of Alo Raun'' (Indiana University Uralic and Altaic Series : Volume 131). Indiana Univ Research, 1977, ISBN 0933070004.
* Vikør, Lars S. (ed.): Fenno-Ugric. In: ''The Nordic Languages. Their Status and Interrelations''. Novus Press, pp. 62-74, 1993.
* Wiik, Kalevi: ''Eurooppalaisten juuret'', Atena Kustannus Oy. Finland, 2002.
* Языки народов СССРIII. Финно-угорÑ?кие и Ñ?амоитйÑ?кие Ñ?зыки (Languages of the Peoples in the USSR III. Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic Languages). МоÑ?ква (Moscow): Ð?аука (Nauka), 1966.
* A magyar szókészlet finnugor elemei. Etimológiai szótár (The Hungarian Vocabulary of Finno-Ugric Origin.
Etymological Dictionary). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1967-1978.
Category:Finno-Ugric languages
af:Fins-Oegriese tale
br:Yezhoù finnek-ougrek
cv:Финн-угр чĕлхиÑ?ем
de:Finno-ugrische Sprachen
et:Soome-ugri keeled
eo:Finn-ugra lingvaro
fr:Langues finno-ougriennes
is:Finnsk-úgrÃsk tungumál
hu:Finnugor nyelvek
mo:Лимбиле фино-угриче
nl:Finoegrische talen
no:Finsk-ugriske språk
nn:Finsk-ugriske språk
pl:Języki ugrofińskie
ro:Limbile fino-ugrice
ru:Финно-угорÑ?кие Ñ?зыки
se:Suopmelaš-ugralaš gielat
sk:UgrofÃnske jazyky
sl:Ugrofinski jeziki
fi:Suomalais-ugrilaiset kielet
sv:Finsk-ugriska språk
uk:УгрофінÑ?ькі мови
zh:芬兰-乌戈尔è¯æ—?
see
Finno-Ugric languages
Articles on
Finno-Ugric languages.
Category:Uralic languages
bg:КатегориÑ?:Угро-финÑ?ки езици
cv:Категори:Финн-угр чĕлхиÑ?ем
cs:Kategorie:Ugrofinské jazyky
de:Kategorie:Finno-ugrische Sprache
eo:Kategorio:Finn-ugra lingvaro
fr:Catégorie:Langue finno-ougrienne
ko:분류:핀우그리아어파
is:Flokkur:Finnsk-úgrÃsk tungumál
ka:კ�ტეგ�რი�:ფინ�-უგ�რული ენები
nl:Categorie:Finoegrische taalfamilie
nn:Kategori:Finsk-ugriske språk
ru:КатегориÑ?:Финно-угорÑ?кие Ñ?зыки
sk:Kategória:UgrofÃnske jazyky
sv:Kategori:Finsk-ugriska språk
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