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Ibn Khaldun

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Image:Ibn Khaldoun.jpg thumb|Statue of Ibn Khaldoun in [[Tunis]] '''Ibn KhaldÅ«n''' (full name ''AbÅ« Zayd Ê•Abdu l-Rahman ibn MuÄ§ammad ibn KhaldÅ«n al-Haá¸?ramÄ«'') (Ø§Ø¨Ùˆ Ø²ÙŠØ¯ Ø¹Ø¨Ø¯ Ø§Ù„Ø±ØÙ…Ù† Ø¨Ù† Ù…ØÙ…Ø¯ Ø¨Ù† Ø®Ù„Ø¯ÙˆÙ† Ø§Ù„ØØ¶Ø±Ù…ÙŠ ), (May 27, 1332/732AH to March 19, 1406/808AH) was a famous Arab historiographer and historian born in present-day Tunisia, and is sometimes viewed as one of the forerunners of modern historiography, sociology and economics. He is best known for his ''Muqaddimah'' "Prolegomena".

Biography
Ibn KhaldÅ«n's life is relatively well-documented, as he wrote an autobiography Ø§Ù„ØªØ¹Ø±ÙŠÙ? Ø¨Ø¥Ø¨Ù† Ø®Ù„Ø¯ÙˆÙ† ÙˆØ±ØÙ„ØªÙ‡ ØºØ±Ø¨Ø§ ÙˆØ´Ø±Ù‚Ø§ ''Al-TaÊ•rÄ«f bi Ibn-KhaldÅ«n wa RiÄ§latuhu GharbÄ?n wa SharqÄ?n'', published by MuÄ§ammad ibn-TÄ?wÄ«t at-TanjÄ«, Cairo 1951) in which numerous documents regarding his life are quoted word-for-word. However, the autobiography has little to say about his private life, so that little is known about his family background. Generally known as "Ibn KhaldÅ«n" after a remote ancestor, he was born in Tunis in 1332 C.E. (732 A.H.) into an upper-class Andalusian family, the ''BanÅ« KhaldÅ«n''. His family, which held many high offices in al-Andalus Andalucia, had emigrated to Tunisia after the fall of Seville at the beginning of the Reconquista, around the middle of the 13th century. Under the Tunisian Hafsid dynasty some of his family held political office; Ibn KhaldÅ«n's father and grandfather however withdrew from political life and joined a mystical order. In his autobiography, Ibn Khaldun traces his descent back to the time of the Prophet Muhammad through an Arab tribe from Yemen, specifically the Hadhramaut, which came to Spain in the eighth century at the beginning of the Islamic conquest. In his own words: "And our ancestry is from Hadhramaut, from the Arabs of Yemen, via Wa'il ibn Hajar, from the best of the Arabs, well-known and respected." (p. 2429, [http://www.alwaraq.com/ Al-Waraq]'s edition). However, a few biographers (eg., Mohammad Enan) question his claim, suggesting that his family may have been Berbers who pretended to Arab origin in order to gain social status.

Education
His family's high rank enabled Ibn Khaldun to study with the best Maghreb North African teachers of the time. He received a classical Arabic education, studying the Qur'an and Arabic language Arabic linguistics, the basis for an understanding of the Qur'an and of Islamic law, Hadith and Fiqh. The mystic, mathematician and philosopher Al-Abili introduced him to mathematics, logic and philosophy, where he above all studied the works of Averroes, Avicenna, Razi and Al-Tusi. At the age of 17, Ibn KhaldÅ«n lost both his parents to an epidemic of the Bubonic plague plague which hit Tunis. Following family tradition, Ibn KhaldÅ«n strove for a political career. In the face of a constantly changing political situation in contemporary North Africa, this required a high degree of skill, developing alliances and dropping them appropriately, to avoid being sucked under by the demise of rulers who at times held power only briefly. Ibn KhaldÅ«n's autobiography, in which he spends time in prison, gains the highest offices and enters exile, at times reads like an adventure story.

Early years in Tunis and Granada
At the age of 20, he began his political career at the Chancellery of the Tunisian ruler Ibn Tafrakin with the position of ''KÄ?tib al-'AlÄ?mah'', which consisted of writing in fine calligraphy the typical introductory notes of official documents. In 1352, AbÅ« Ziad, the Sultan of Constantine, marched on Tunis and defeated it. Ibn KhaldÅ«n, in any case unhappy with his respected but politically meaningless position, followed his teacher Abili to Fez, Morocco Fez. Here the Merinid sultan AbÅ« Inan Fares I gave him a position as a writer of royal proclamations, which didn't prevent Ibn KhaldÅ«n from scheming against his employer. In 1357 this brought the 25-year-old a 22-month prison sentence. At the death of AbÅ« Inan in 1358, the vizier al-HasÄ?n ibn-Umar set him at liberty and reinstated him in his rank and offices. Ibn KhaldÅ«n then schemed against AbÅ« Inan's successor, AbÅ« Salem Ibrahim III, with AbÅ« Salem's exiled uncle, AbÅ« Salem. When AbÅ« Salem came to power, he gave Ibn KhaldÅ«n a ministerial position, the first which corresponded with Ibn KhaldÅ«n's expectations. By contrast, after the fall of AbÅ« Salem through Ibn-Amar Ê•Abdullah, a friend of Ibn KhaldÅ«n's, Ibn KhaldÅ«n was disappointed, receiving no significant official position. At the same time, Amar successfully prevented Ibn KhaldÅ«n - whose political skills he was well aware of - from allying with the Abd al-Wadids in Tlemcen. Ibn KhaldÅ«n therefore decided to move to Granada. He could be sure of a positive welcome there, since at Fez he had helped the Sultan of Granada, the Nasrid Muhammad V, regain power from his temporary exile. In 1364 Muhammad entrusted him with a diplomatic mission to the King of Castille, Peter I of Castile Pedro the Cruel, to sign a peace treaty. Ibn KhaldÅ«n successfully carried out this mission, and politely declined Pedro's offer to remain at his court and have his family's Spanish possessions returned to him. In Granada, however, Ibn KhaldÅ«n quickly came into competition with Muhammad's vizier, Ibn al-Khatib, who saw the close relationship between Muhammad and Ibn KhaldÅ«n with increasing mistrust. Ibn KhaldÅ«n tried to shape the young Muhammad into his ideal of a wise ruler, an enterprise which Ibn al-Khatib thought foolish and a danger to peace in the country - and history proved him right. At al-Khatib's instigation, Ibn KhaldÅ«n was eventually sent back to North Africa. Al-Khatib himself was later accused by Muhammad of having unorthodox philosophical views, and murdered, despite an attempt by Ibn KhaldÅ«n to intercede on behalf of his old rival. In his autobiography, Ibn KhaldÅ«n tells us little about his conflict with Ibn al-Khatib and the reasons for his return to Africa. The orientalist Muhsin Mahdi interprets this as showing that Ibn KhaldÅ«n later realised that he had completely misjudged Muhammad V.

High political office
Back in Africa, the Hafsid sultan of Bougie, AbÅ« Ê•AbdallÄ?h, who had been his companion in prison, received him with great cordiality, and made Ibn KhaldÅ«n his prime minister. During this period, Ibn KhaldÅ«n carried out an adventurous mission to collect taxes among the local Berber tribes. After the 1366 death of AbÅ« Ê•AbdallÄ?h, Ibn KhaldÅ«n changed sides once again and allied himself with the ruler of Tlemcen, AbÅ« l-Abbas. A few years later he was taken prisoner by Ê•Abdu l-AzÄ«z, who had defeated the sultan of Tlemcen and seized the throne. He then entered a monastic establishment, and occupied himself with scholastic duties, until in 1370 he was sent for to Tlemcen by the new sultan. After the death of Ê•Abdu l-AzÄ«z, he resided at Fez, enjoying the patronage and confidence of the regent. Ibn KhaldÅ«n's political skills, above all his good relationship with the wild Berber tribes, were in high demand among the North African rulers, whereas he himself began to tire of politics and constant switching of allegiances. In 1375, sent by AbÅ« Hammu, the Ê•Abdu l Wadid Sultan of Tlemcen, on a mission to the Dawadida tribes, Ibn KhaldÅ«n sought refuge with one of the Berber tribes, the Awlad Arif of central Algeria, in the town of Qalat Ibn Salama. He lived there for over three years under their protection, taking advantage of his seclusion to write the ''Muqaddimah'' "Prologomena", the introduction to his planned history of the world. In Ibn Salama, however, he lacked the necessary literature to complete the work. As a result, in 1378, he returned to his native Tunis, which in the mean time had been conquered by AbÅ« l-Abbas, who took Ibn KhaldÅ«n back into his service. There he devoted himself almost exclusively to his studies and completed his history of the world. His relationship with AbÅ« l-Abbas remained strained, as the latter doubted his loyalty, especially after Ibn KhaldÅ«n presented him with a copy of the completed history omitting the usual panegyric to the ruler. Under pretence of going on the Hajj to Mecca - something an Muslim ruler could not simply refuse permission for - Ibn KhaldÅ«n was able to leave Tunis and sail to Alexandria.

Last years in Egypt
In comparison to the Maghreb, Ibn KhaldÅ«n must have felt Egypt was a paradise; indeed he himself said "He who has not seen it does not know the power of Islam." While all other Islamic regions had to cope with border wars and inner strife, Egypt under the Mamluks was experiencing a period of economic prosperity and high culture. But even in Egypt, where Ibn KhaldÅ«n spent the rest of his life, he could not stay out of politics completely. In 1384 the Egyptian Sultan, al-Malik udh-Dhahir Barquq, made him Professor of the Qamhiyyah Madrasah, and grand Qadi (supreme judge) of the Maliki school of fiqh or religious law (one of four schools, the Maliki school was widespread primarily in West Africa). His efforts at reform encountered resistance, however, and within a year he had to resign his judgeship. A contributory factor to his decision to resign may have been the heavy personal blow that struck him in 1384, when a ship carrying his wife and children sank off the coast of Alexandria. Ibn Khaldun now decided to complete the pilgrimage to Mecca after all. After his return in May 1388, Ibn KhaldÅ«n concentrated more strongly on a purely educational function at various Cairo madrasas. At court he fell out of favour for a time, as during revolts against Barquq he had - apparently under duress - together with other Cairo jurists issued a Fatwa against Barquq. Later relations with Barquq returned to normal, and he was once again named the Maliki ''qadi''. Altogether he was called six times to this high office, which for various reasons he never held long. In 1401, under Barquq's successor, his son Faraj, Ibn KhaldÅ«n took part in a military campaign against the Mongolian conqueror Timur, who besieged Damascus. Ibn KhaldÅ«n doubted the success of the venture and didn't really want to leave Egypt. His doubts were vindicated, as the young and inexperienced Faraj, concerned about a revolt in Egypt, left his army to its own devices in Syria and hurried home. Ibn KhaldÅ«n remained at the besieged city for seven weeks, being lowered over the city wall by ropes in order to negotiate with Timur, in a historic series of meetings which he reports extensively in his autobiography. Timur questioned him in detail about conditions in the lands of the Maghreb; at his request, Ibn KhaldÅ«n even wrote a long report about it. As he recognized the intentions behind this, he did not hesitate, on his return to Egypt, to compose an equally extensive report on the history of the Tartars, together with a character study of Timur, sending these to the Merinid rulers in Fez. Ibn KhaldÅ«n spent the following five years in Cairo completing his autobiography and his history of the world and acting as teacher and judge. During this time he also formed an all male club named Rijal Hawa Rijal. Their activities attracted the attention of local religious authorities and he was placed under arrest. He died on 17th March 1406, one month after his sixth selection for the office of the Maliki ''qadi''.

Works
Unlike most Arab scholars, Ibn KhaldÅ«n has left behind few works other than his history of the world, ''al-KitÄ?bu l-Ê•ibÄ?r''. Significantly, such writings are not alluded to in his autobiography, suggesting perhaps that Ibn KhaldÅ«n saw himself first and foremost as a historian and wanted to be known above all as the author of ''al-KitÄ?bu l-Ê•ibÄ?r''. From other sources we know of several other works, primarily composed during the time he spent in North Africa and Spain. His first book, ''LubÄ?bu l-Muhassal'', a commentary on the theology of ar-RazÄ«, was written at the age of 19 under the supervision of his teacher al-Ä€bilÄ« in Tunis. A work on Sufism, ''SifÄ?'u l-SÄ?'il'', was composed around 1373 in Fez. Whilst at the court of Muhammad V, Sultan of Granada, Ibn KhaldÅ«ncomposed a work on logic, ''Ê•allaqa li-l-SultÄ?n''. The ''KitÄ?bu l-Ê•ibÄ?r'' (full title: ''KitÄ?bu l-Ê•ibÄ?r wa DiwÄ?nu l-Mubtada' wa l-Ä¦abar fÄ« AyyÄ?mu l-Ê•arab wa l-Ä€jam wa l-Barbar wa man Ê•Ä€sarahum min Ä?awIu s-SultÄ?nu l-AkbÄ?r'' "Book of Evidence, Record of Beginnings and Events from the Days of the Arabs, Persians and Berbers and their Powerful Contemporaries"), Ibn KhaldÅ«n's main work, was originally conceived as a history of the Berbers. Later the focus was widened so that in its final form (including its own methodology and anthropology) it represents a so-called "universal history". It is divided into seven books, the first of which, the ''Muqaddimah'', can be considered a separate work. Books two to five cover the history of mankind up to the time of Ibn KhaldÅ«n. Books six and seven cover the history of the Berber peoples and of the Maghreb, which for the present-day historian represent the real value of the ''Al-KitÄ?bu l-Ê•ibÄ?r'', as they are based on Ibn KhaldÅ«n's personal knowledge of the Berbers. For sociology it is interesting that he conceived both a central social conflict ("town" versus "desert") as well as a theory (using the concept of a "generation") of the necessary loss of power of city conquerors coming from the desert. Following a contemporary Arab scholar, Sati' al-Husri, it can be suggested that the Muqaddimah is essentially a sociological work, sketching over its six books a general sociology; a sociology of politics; a sociology of urban life; a sociology of economics; and a sociology of knowledge. The work is based around Ibn Khaldun's central concept of '''asabiyah'' "social cohesion." This cohesion arises spontaneously in tribes and other small kinship groups; and it can be intensified and enlarged by a religious ideology. Ibn Khaldun's analysis looks at how this cohesion carries groups to power but contains within itself the seeds - psychological, sociological, economic, political - of the group's downfall, to be replaced by a new group, dynasty or empire bound by a stronger (or at least younger and more vigorous) cohesion. Perhaps the most frequently cited observation drawn from Ibn KhaldÅ«n's work is, in layman's terms, the notion that when a society becomes a great civilization (and, presumably, the dominant culture in its region), its high point is followed by a period of decay. This means that the next cohesive group that conquers the diminished civilization is, by comparison, a group of barbarians. Once the barbarians solidify their control over the conquered society, however, they become attracted to its more refined aspects, such as literacy and arts, and either assimilate into or appropriate such cultural practices. Then, eventually, the former barbarians will be conquered by a new set of barbarians, who will repeat the process.

Assessments of Ibn KhaldÅ«n's Contribution
* British historian Arnold J. Toynbee called the ''Muqaddimah'' "undoubtedly the greatest work of its kind that has ever yet been created by any mind in any time or place." * Bernard Lewis describes Ibn KhaldÅ«n as "the greatest historian of the Arabs and perhaps the greatest historical thinker of the Middle Ages" (from ''The Arabs in History'', 1950, page 160) * Abderrahmane Lakhsassi writes: "No historian of the Maghreb since and particularly of the Berbers can do without his historical contribution."

Some quotes from works by Ibn KhaldÅ«n

On economics
*"In the early stages of the state, taxes are light in their incidence, but fetch in a large revenue...As time passes and kings succeed each other, they lose their tribal habits in favor of more civilized ones. Their needs and exigencies grow...owing to the luxury in which they have been brought up. Hence they impose fresh taxes on their subjects...[and] sharply raise the rate of old taxes to increase their yield...But the effects on business of this rise in taxation make themselves felt. For business men are soon discouraged by the comparison of their profits with the burden of their taxes...Consequently production falls off, and with it the yield of taxation." This sociological theory includes the concept known in economics as the Laffer Curve (the relationship between tax rates and tax revenue follows an inverted U shape).

On the Arabic language
*"All the sciences came to exist in Arabic language Arabic. The systematic works on them were written in Arabic writing."('' ^{''Muqaddimah, Translated by Franz Rosenthal, p.432, Princeton University Press, 1981.''})

On the Arabs
*"Arabs dominate only of the plains, because they are, by their savage nature, people of pillage and corruption. They pillage everything that they can take without fighting or taking risks, then flee to their refuge in the wilderness, and do not stand and do battle unless in self-defense. So when they encounter any difficulty or obstacle, they leave it alone and look for easier prey. And tribes well-fortified against them on the slopes of the hills escape their corruption and destruction, because they prefer not to climb hills, nor expend effort, nor take risks. Whereas plains, when they can reach them due to lack of protection and weakness of the state, are spoils for them and morsels for them to eat, which they will keep despoiling and raiding and conquering with ease until their people are defeated, then imitate them with mutual conflict and political decline, until their civilization is destroyed. And Allah is capable of their creation, and He is the One, the Victorious, and there is no other lord than Him." [http://www.al-eman.com/islamlib/viewchp.asp?BID=163&CID=8#s3 (original text)]

=Note on Ibn Khaldun's use of "Arab"
= While it is true that many Muslim scholars who composed their works in Arabic, both in the religious and in the intellectual sciences, have been of non-Arab descent, Ibn KhaldÅ«n's use of the term ''Arab'' in his history seems to indicate a class of people and not a group. Most scholars believe that, in many instances, Ibn KhaldÅ«n uses the name ''Arab'' to mean ''bedouin.'' Other scholars, such as Mohamed Chafik, deny this. From Bernard Lewis, ''The Arabs in History'' pp. 14-16 (1950) :"From late 'Abbasid times onwards the word Arab reverts to its earlier meaning of Bedouin or nomad, becoming in effect a social rather than an ethnic term. In many of the Western chronicles of the Crusades it is used only for Bedouin, while the mass of the Muslim population of the Near East are called Saracens. It is certainly in this sense that in the sixteenth century Tasso speaks of ::'Altri Arabi poi, che di soggiorno, / certo non sono stabili abitanti;' (''Gerusalemme Liberata'', XVII 21.) :"The fourteenth-century Arabic historian Ibn KhaldÅ«n, himself a townsman of Arab descent, uses the word commonly in this sense." ''Some text from the 1911 EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica''

On the Greeks
*"The sciences of only one nation, the Greeks, have come down to us, because they were translated through Al-Ma'mun's efforts. He was successful in this direction because he had many translators at his disposal and spent much money in this connection." *"Eventually, Aristotle appeared among the Greeks. He improved the methods of logic and systematized its problems and details. He assigned to logic its proper place as the first philosophical discipline and the introduction to philosophy. Therefore he is called the ''First Teacher''."(''^{''Muqaddimah, Translated by Franz Rosenthal, p.39 and p.383, Princeton University Press, 1981.''})

On the Jews
*"(Unlike Muslims), the other religious groups did not have a universal mission, and the holy war was not a religious duty to them, save only for purposes of defence... They are merely required to establish their religion among their own people. This is why the Israelites after Moses and Joshua remained unconcerned with royal authority for about four hundred years. Their only concern was to establish their religion... The Israelites dispossessed the Canaanites of the land that God had given them as their heritage in Jerusalem and the surrounding region, as it had been explained to them through Moses. The nations of the Philistines, the Canaanites, the Armenians, the Edomites, the Ammonites, and the Moabites fought against them. During that time political leadership was entrusted to the elders among them. The Israelites remained in that condition for about four hundred years. They did not have any royal power and were harassed by attacks from foreign nations. Therefore, they asked God through Samuel, one of their prophets, that he permit them to make someone king over them. Thus, Saul became their king. He defeated the foreign nations and killed Goliath, the ruler of Philistines. After Saul, David became king, and then Solomon. His kingdom flourished and extended to the borders of the land of the Hijaz and further to the borders of Yemen and to the borders of the land of the Byzantines. After Solomon, the tribes split into two dynasties. One of the dysnaties was that of the ten tribes in the region of Nablus, the capital of which is Samaria(Sabastiyah), and the other that of the children of Judah and Benjamin in Jerusalem. Their royal authority had had an uninterrupted duration of a thousand years."(''^{''Muqaddimah, Translated by Franz Rosenthal, pp.183-184, Princeton University Press, 1981.''})

On the Persians
{{totallydisputed-section}} From ''The Prologomena'': *''â€¦It is a remarkable fact that, with few exceptions, most Muslim scholarsâ€¦in the intellectual sciences have been non-Arabsâ€¦thus the founders of grammar were Sibawaih and after him, al-Farisi and Az-Zajjaj. All of them were of Persian descentâ€¦they invented rules of (Arabic) grammarâ€¦great jurists were Persiansâ€¦ only the Persians engaged in the task of preserving knowledge and writing systematic scholarly works. Thus the truth of the statement of the prophet becomes apparent, 'If learning were suspended in the highest parts of heaven the Persians would attain it"â€¦The intellectual sciences were also the preserve of the Persians, left alone by the Arabs, who did not cultivate themâ€¦as was the case with all craftsâ€¦This situation continued in the cities as long as the Persians and Persian countries, Iraq, Khorasan and Transoxiana (modern Central Asia), retained their sedentary culture."'' ^{''The Muqaddimah'', Translated by F. Rosenthal (III, pp. 311-15, 271-4 [Arabic]; R.N. Frye (p.91)}

On the Qu'ran
*Arabic writing at the beginning of Islam was, therefore, not of the best quality nor of the greatest accuracy and excellence. It was not (even) of medium quality, because the Arabs possessed the savage desert attitude and were not familiar with crafts. One may compare what happened to the orthography of the Qurâ€™an on account of this situation. The men around Muhammad wrote the Qurâ€™an in their own script which, was not of a firmly established, good quality. Most of the letters were in contradiction to the orthography required by persons versed in the craft of writing.... Consequently, (the Qurâ€™anic orthography of the men around Muhammad was followed and became established, and the scholars acquainted with it have called attention to passages where (this is noticeable). No attention should be paid in this connection with those incompetent (scholars) that (the men around Muhammad) knew well the art of writing and that the alleged discrepancies between their writing and the principles of orthography are not discrepancies, as has been alleged, but have a reason. For instance, they explain the addition of the alif in la â€˜adhbahannahU "I shall indeed slaughter him" as indication that the slaughtering did not take place ( lA â€˜adhbahannahU ). The addition of the ya in bi-ayydin "with hands (power)," they explain as an indication that the divine power is perfect. There are similar things based on nothing but purely arbitrary assumptions. The only reason that caused them to (assume such things) is their belief that (their explanations) would free the men around Muhammad from the suspicion of deficiency, in the sense that they were not able to write well. They think that good writing is perfection. Thus, they do not admit the fact that the men around Muhammad were deficient in writing.'' Muqqadimah, ibn Khaldun, vol. 2, p.382

On Religious propaganda
*"Religious propaganda gives a dynasty at its beginning another power in addition to that of the group feeling it possessed as the result of the number of its supporters... This happened to the Arabs at the beginning of Islam during the Muslim conquests. The armies of the Muslims at al-Qadisiyah and at the Yarmuk numbered some 30,000 in each case, while the Persian people Persian troops at al-Qadisiyah numbered 120,000, and the troops of Heraclius, according to al-Waqidi, 400,000. Neither of the two parties was able to withstand the Arabs, who routed them and seized what they possessed." ('' ^{''Muqaddimah, Translated by Franz Rosenthal, p.126, Princeton University Press, 1981.''})

See also
*Sundiata Keita *Egon Orowan Fatwas: *Historical Shi'a-Sunni relations

Bibliography
*Fuad Bali, ''Society, State, and Urbanism: Ibn Khaldun's Sociological Thought'' , State University of New York Press, 1988. Contains a detailed assesment of Ibn Khalduns sociology and anthropology. *Ibn KhaldÅ«n: ''The Muqaddimah: an Introduction to History''. Translated from the Arabic by Franz Rosenthal. 3 vols. New York: Princeton 1958. *Ibn KhaldÅ«n: ''The Muqaddimah: an Introduction to History''. Trans Franz Rosenthal, ed N.J. Dawood. 1 vol (abridged) 1967. *Muhsin Mahdi: ''Ibn Khaldun's Philosophy of History''. London 1957. *Walter Fischel, ''Ibn Khaldun in Egypt; his public functions and his historical research, 1382-1406; a study in Islamic historiography''. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1967. *Mahmoud Rabi', ''The political theory of Ibn Khaldun'', Leiden 1967 *Ibn Khaldun: Ø§Ù„ØªØ¹Ø±ÙŠÙ? Ø¨Ø¥Ø¨Ù† Ø®Ù„Ø¯ÙˆÙ† ÙˆØ±ØÙ„ØªÙ‡ ØºØ±Ø¨Ø§ ÙˆØ´Ø±Ù‚Ø§ ''Al-TaÊ•rÄ«f bi Ibn-KhaldÅ«n wa RiÄ§latuhu GharbÄ?n wa SharqÄ?n''. Published by MuÄ§ammad ibn-TÄ?wÄ«t at-TanjÄ«. Cairo 1951 (Autobiography, Arabic)

External links

- Ibn Khaldun on the Web
- Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Work, by Muhammad Hozien
- Muslim Scientists and Scholars - Ibn Khaldun
- Dutch biography
- Chapters from the Muqaddimah and the History of Ibn Khaldun '''in Arabic'''
- "Les Arabes n'Ã©tablissent leur domination que sur des pays de plaines"
- Ibn Khaldūn, from Arnold Toynbee, ''A Study of History'' vol. iii, III. C. II. (b), p. 321
- Ibn Khaldun Discussion
- The Ibn Khaldoun Community Service Award
- Prolegomena (al-Muqaddimah): Methodology & concepts of economic-socioogy Category:1332 births Khaldun Category:1406 deaths Khaldun Category:Arab historians Khaldun Category:Autobiographers Khaldun Category:Muslim scientists Khaldun {{Link FA|de}} ar:Ø§Ø¨Ù† Ø®Ù„Ø¯ÙˆÙ† bs:Ibn Haldun de:Ibn Chaldun el:Î™Î¼Ï€Î½ Î§Î±Î»Î½Ï„Î¿Ï?Î½ eo:Ibn-Khaldun fr:Ibn Khaldoun gl:Ibn Khaldun - Ø¹Ø¨Ø¯ Ø§Ù„Ø±ØÙ…Ù† Ø¨Ù† Ù…ØÙ…Ø¯ Ø¨Ù† Ø®Ù„Ø¯ÙˆÙ† Ø§Ù„ØØ¶Ø±Ù…ÙŠ hr:Ibn Khaldun id:Ibnu Khaldun it:Ibn Khaldun ms:Abdul Al-Rahman Ibn Muhammad Ibn Khaldun nl:Ibn Khaldun ja:ã‚¤ãƒ–ãƒ³ï¼?ãƒ?ãƒ«ãƒ‰ã‚¥ãƒ¼ãƒ³ pl:Ibn Chaldun pt:Ibn Khaldun simple:Ibn Khaldun sk:Ibn ChaldÃºn sl:Ibn Haldun fi:Ibn Khaldun tr:Ä°bn'i Haldun

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