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Indus River
*** Shopping-Tip: Indus River
see
Indus_River
Image: Indus.jpg thumb|300px|The Indus River in northern [[Pakistan, near the rock Aornus.]]
The '''Indus''', (known in
Tibetan as the '''Sengge Chu''' ('Lion River') and in
Sanskrit and
Hindi language Hindi as the '''Sindhu''') is the longest and one of the most important
rivers in
South Asia. Originating in the Tibetan plateau in the vicinity of Lake Mansarovar, the river runs a course through
Kashmir in both
India and
Pakistan, and in a southernly direction along the entire length of Pakistan to merge into the
Arabian Sea. Figures for the total length of the river vary between 2,900 and 3,200
kilometres. The river has a total drainage area exceeding 450,000 miles. The river's estimated annual flow stands at around 207 billion cubic metres. Beginning at the heights of the world with
glaciers, the river feeds the
ecosystem of temperate forests,
plains and arid countryside. Together with the rivers
Chenab,
Ravi,
Sutlej,
Jhelum,
Beas and the extinct
Sarasvati River, the Indus forms the
Indus River Delta ''Sapta Sindhu'' (''Seven rivers'') delta in the Sindh province of Pakistan. It has 20 tributaries.
The Indus was the primary support and base of the
Indus Valley Civilization - one of the earliest in world history - which arose along its course. The
Rigveda (c. 1500 BCE) first mentions the river. The ''Indus'' is the
English language English name derived from ''Sinthos'' in
Greek language Greek, and ''Sindus'' in
Latin. The name
India is
Etymology of India derived from the root of the river's name. The region through which it passes prior to entering the sea is named
Sindh - home to ancient kingdoms, now a province in Pakistan. The river is considered
sacred in
Hinduism - the term ''
Hindu'' itself is derived from ''Sindhu'' - and is worshipped by Hindus. The Indus provides the key water resources for the
economy of Pakistan - especially the ''breadbasket'' of
Punjab (Pakistan) Punjab province, which accounts for most of the nation's agricultural production, and Sindh. It also supports many heavy industries and provides the main supply of
potable water in Pakistan.
The Indus river system
Image:Indus.A2002274.0610.1km.jpg thumb|200px|Satellite image of the Indus River basin.
Image:Indus River Delta.jpg thumb|300px|right|Indus River Delta
The ultimate source of the Indus is actually in
Tibet; it begins at the confluence of the Sengge and Gar rivers that drain the Nganglong Kangri and Gangdise Shan mountain ranges. The Indus then flows northwest through
Ladakh-
Baltistan into
Gilgit, just south of the
Karakoram range. The Shyok, Shigar and Gilgit streams carry glacieral waters into the main river. It gradually bends to the south, coming out of the hills between
Peshawar and
Rawalpindi. The Indus passes gigantic gorges (15,000-17,000 feet) near the
Nanga Parbat massif It swiftly flows across
Hazara, and is dammed at the Tarbela Reservoir. The
Kabul River joins it near
Attock. The remainder of its route to the sea is in plains of the
Punjab region Punjab and
Sind, and the river becomes slow-flowing and highly braided. It is joined by
Panjnad river at
Mithankot. Passing by
Hyderabad, Pakistan Hyderabad, it ends in a large delta to the east of
Karachi.
The Indus is, by volume, the largest ''exotic river'' (one that mainly flows through a country from which it receives no water) in the world. It is one of the few rivers in the world that exhibit a
tidal bore. The Indus system is largely fed by the snows and glaciers of the Karakoram,
Hindu Kush and Himalayan ranges of Tibet and Kashmir. The flow of the river is also determined by the seasons - it diminishes greatly in the winter, while flooding its banks in the
monsoon months from July to September. There is also evidence of a steady shift in the course of the river since prehistoric times - it deviated westwards from flowing into the
Rann of Kutch.
Tributaries
{| style="border:2px solid; align:center; width:50%; background:#efefef;"
|-
|
*
Beas River Beas
*
Kabul River Kabul
*
Ravi River Ravi
*
Wakha River Wakha
*
Shingo River Shingo
*
Sutlej River Sutlej
*
Astor River Astor
*
Gilgit River Gilgit
*
Ghizar River Ghizar
*
Hunza River Hunza
|
*
Gumal River Gumal
*
Zhob River Zhob'''
*
Zanskar Gorge Zanskar
*
Kunar River Kunar
*
Gar River Gar
*
Shyok River Shyok
*
Shigar River Shigar
*
Chenab River Chenab
*
Jhelum River Jhelum
*
Suru Chu River Suru Chu
|}
The Delta
The '''Indus River Delta''' occurs where the Indus River flows into the
Arabian Sea in
Pakistan. The delta covers an area of about 16,000 square miles (41,440 sq km), and is approximately 130 miles across where it meets the sea. Unlike many other deltas, the Indus River Delta consists of
clay and other infertile
soils, and is very swampy. The delta receives between 10 and 20 inches of rainfall in a normal year.
Pakistans fifth largest city,
Hyderabad, lies about 130 miles north of the mouths of the Indus. Towns are found throughout the delta, but there are no large cities on the delta south of Hyderabad.
Karachi, Pakistan's largest city, lies west of the delta on the coast of the Arabian Sea. Average temperatures for the delta region in July range from 70 - 85°F, and 50 - 70°F in January. The Indus River Delta is an important region for migrating water
birds, and is an area rich in freshwater
fauna (animals) fauna. Fish found in the delta include the
Hilsa, Indus baril, Indus garua (a
catfish), the giant snakehead, golden mahaseer and the Rita catfish.
History
Image:Indus sites.png thumb|right|200px|Archaeological sites in the Indus Valley.
{{Main|Indus Valley Civilization}}
Presence of Stone Age men has been discovered in
Pothohar in the form of stone tools of
Soan Culture. The
Indus Valley Civilization was one of the three earliest civilizations of the ancient world, the other two being
Sumer (in
Mesopotamia/
Iraq) and
ancient Egypt. The major cities of the Indus Valley civilization, such as
Harappa and
Mohenjo Daro, date back to around 3300 BC, and represent some of the largest human habitations of the ancient world. The Civilization was extended from
Balochistan to
Gujarat, with an upward reach to the Punjab from east of River
Jhelum to
Rupar on the upper
Sutlej. The coast settlements extended from
Sutkagan Dor at
Iran Iranian border to
Lothal in Gujarat. There is an Indus site on the
Oxus river at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan (Kenoyer 1998:96), and the Indus site Alamgirpur at the Hindon river is located only 28 km from Delhi (S.P. Gupta 1995:183). It is also conjectured that some of the
Vedas, the holiest books of
Hinduism were composed in settlements near its banks.
In ancient
Gandhara, the home of earlier
Indo-Aryans Aryans, evidence of cave dwellers dated 15,000 years ago has been discovered at
Mardan. Settlements of
Gandhara grave culture of early Indo-Aryans flourished in this part of Pakistan from 1700 to 600 BCE, when Mohenjo Daro and Harappa had already been abandoned. To date, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the
Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries. Among the settlements were the major urban centers of
Harappa and
Mohenjo-daro, as well as
Lothal,
Dholavira,
Ganeriwala, and
Rakhigarhi. Additionally, there is some disputed evidence indicative of another large river, now long dried up, running parallel to and east of the Indus River. The dried-up river beds overlap with the
Hakra channel in
Pakistan, and the seasonal
Ghaggar River in
India. Over 500 ancient sites belonging to the civilization have been discovered along the
Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries (S.P. Gupta 1995: 183). In contrast to this, only 90 to 96 of the over 800 known Indus Valley sites have been discovered on the
Indus and its tributaries.
The Indus has formed a natural boundary between the Indian hinterland and its frontier with Afghanistan and
Iran. It has been crossed by the armies of
Alexander the Great - Greek forces retreated along the southern course of the river at the end of the Indian campaign. The Indus plains have also been under the domination of the
Persian empire and the
Kushan empire. The
Muslim armies of
Muhammad bin Qasim,
Mahmud of Ghazni and
Babur also crossed the river to strike into the inner regions of
Gujarat,
Punjab and
Rajputana.
Climate
The Indus delta is one of the driest in the
Indian subcontinent, lying just to the west of the
Thar Desert of
Rajasthan. The upper valley of the Indus receives 4-8 inches of rainfall in the winter months owing to northwestern winds. The mountainous region in Kashmir and northern Pakistan receives a large amount of precipitation in the form of snow. Annual temperatures fall below freezing in the northern mountainous regions in the winter, while exceeding 100 degrees Fahrenheit in the plains of Punjab and Sindh in the summer.
Jacobabad, which is one of the hottest spots in the world, lies to the west of the river in Sindh.
Wildlife
Accounts of the Indus valley from the times of Alexander's campaign indicate a healthy forest cover in the region, which has now considerably receeded. The Mughal Emperor Babar writes of encountering rhinoceroses along its bank in his memoirs (the BaberNameh). Extensive
deforestation and human interference in the ecology of the
Shivalik Hills has led to a marked deterioration in vegetation and growing conditions. The Indus valley regions are arid with poor vegetation. Agriculture is sustained largely due to irrigation works.
The
Indus River Dolphin is a sub-species of Dolphins found only in the Indus River. It formerly also occurred in the tributaries of the Indus river.
Palla fish (''
Hilsa ilisha'') of the river is a delicacy for people living along the river. The population of fishes in the river is moderate, with Sukkur, Thatta and Kotri being the major fishing centres - all in the lower Sindh course. But damming and irrigation has made fish farming an important economic activity. Located southeast of
Karachi, the large delta has been recognised by conservationists as one of the world's most important ecological regions. Here the river distributes into many marshes, streams and creeks and meets the sea at shallow levels. Here marine fishes are found in abundance, including
pomfret and
prawns.
Economy
The Indus is the most important supplier of water resources to the
Punjab (Pakistan) Punjab and
Sindh plains - it forms the backbone of agriculture and food production in Pakistan. The river is especially critical as rainfall is meagre in the lower Indus valley. Irrigation canals were first built by the peoples of the Indus valley civilization, and later by the engineers of the
Kushan empire and the
Mughal empire. Modern irrigation was introduced by the
British East India Company in 1850 - the construction of modern canals accompanied with the restoration of old canals. The British supervised the construction of one of the most complex irrigation networks in the world. The
Guddu Barrage is 4,450 feet long - irrigating
Sukkur, Jacobabad,
Larkana and
Kalat. The
Sukkur Barrage serves over five million acres.
After partition, the Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority undertook the construction of the Chashma-Jhelum link canal - linking the waters of the Indus and Jhelum rivers - extending water supplies to the regions of
Bahawalpur and
Multan. Pakistan also constructed the
Tarbela Dam near Rawalpindi - standing 9,000 feet long and 470 feet high, with a 50 mile-long reservoir. The
Kotri Barrage near
Hyderabad, Pakistan Hyderabad is 3,000 feet long and provides additional supplies for Karachi. The
Taunsa Barrage near
Dera Ghazi Khan produces 100,000 kilowatts of electricity. The extensive linking of tributaries with the Indus has helped spread water resources to the valley of
Peshawar, the
Northwest Frontier Province. The extensive irrigation and dam projects provide the basis for Pakistan's large production of crops such as
cotton,
sugarcane and
wheat. The dams also generate electricity for heavy industries and urban centres.
People
Image:Indus near Skardu.jpg thumb|200px|right|The Indus River near Skardu, Pakistan
The inhabitants of the regions through whom the Indus river passes and forms a major natural feature and resource are diverse in ethnicity, religion, national and linguistic backgrounds. On the northern course of the river in Kashmir live the
Buddhist people of
Ladakh, of
Tibetan stock, with Kashmiris who practise both
Islam and Hinduism. As it descends into Pakistan, the Indus river forms a distinctive boundary of ethnicity and cultures - upon the western banks the population is largely
Pashtun,
Balochi, and of other
People of Afghanistan Afghan stock, with close cultural, economic and ethnic ties to
Iran and Afghanistan. The eastern banks are largely populated with peoples of the
Punjabi stock, with smaller populations of
Sindhis and people from regions in modern India. In northern Punjab and the NWFP,
Pathan peoples and ethnic
Pashtun tribes live alongside
Punjabi peoples. In the southern portion of the Punjab province, the
Serakai peoples speak a distinctive tongue and practise distinctive traditions. In the province of Sindh, peoples of
Sindhi,
Gujarati language Gujarati,
Punjabi and
Urdu-speaking
Mohajir backgrounds form the local populations. Upon the western banks of the river live the
Balochi and
Pashtun peoples of
Balochistan.
Modern issues
Due to its location and vast water resources, Indus is a strategically vital resource for Pakistan's economy and society. The river is also sacred for
Hindus in both India and Pakistan, and India's control of the river in its Kashmir course has created conflict for the use of the river's resources between the two nations.
Indus Waters treaty
{{main|Indus Waters Treaty}}
After the
partition of India in 1947, the use of the waters of the Indus and its five eastern tributaries became a major dispute between India and Pakistan. The irrigation canals of the Sutlej valley and the Bari Doab were split - with the canals lying primarily in Pakistan and the headwork dams in India - disrupting supply in some parts of Pakistan. The concern over India building large dams over various Punjab rivers that could undercut the supply flowing to Pakistan, as well as the possibility that India could divert rivers in the time of war, caused political consternation in Pakistan. Holding diplomatic talks brokered by the World Bank, India and Pakistan signed the Indus Waters Treaty in 1960. The treaty gave India the control of the three easternmost rivers of the Punjab,
Sutlej,
Beas and the
Ravi, while Pakistan gained control of of the three western rivers,
Jhelum,
Chenab and the Indus. India retained the right to use of the western rivers for non irrigation projects. (See discussion regarding a recent dispute about a hydroelectric project on the Chenab (not Indus) known as the Baghlighar project).
Pilgrimage
Hindu pilgrimage to holy sites alongside the river has been a source of conflict between the nations. Pakistan does not generally allow Indian citizens to visit the country for religious purposes, and Hindu worship of its most important river has provoked the consternation of Muslim extremists. However, owing to the volatile nature of bilateral relations, most pilgrimage and religious ceremonies are performed by Hindus in Kashmir.
Conservation
There are concerns that extensive deforestation, industrial pollution and
global warming are affecting the vegetation and wildlife of the Indus delta, while affecting agricultural production as well. There are also concerns that the Indus river may be shifting its course westwards - although the progression spans centuries. On numerous occasions, Water-clogging owing to poor maintenance of canals has affected agricultural production and vegetation. In addition, extreme heat has caused water to evaporate leaving salt deposits that render lands useless for cultivation.
References
*{{1911}}
*World Atlas, Millennium Edition, pg 265.
*Jean Fairley, "The Lion River", Karachi, 1978
External links
-
Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law See '''Indus River'''. Peace Palace Libray
-
Northern Areas Development Gateway
-
The Mountain Areas Conservancy Project
-
Indus River watershed map (World Resources Institute)
-
Indus Treaty
-
Baglihar Dam issue
-
Indus
-
Indus Wildlife
{{SouthAsiaWaters}}
{{GeoSouthAsia}}
Category:Geography of Sindh
Category:Indus Valley Civilization
Category:Rivers of India
Category:Rivers of Pakistan
Category:Rivers of Tibet
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