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Koine greek
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{{History of the Greek language}}
'''Koine Greek''' ({{Polytonic|Κοινὴ Ἑλληνική}}) is an
ancient Greek ancient Greek dialects Greek dialect which marks the second stage in the history of the
Greek language. Other names are '''Alexandrian''', '''Hellenistic''', '''Common''', or '''New Testament''' Greek. Koine Greek is not only important to the history of the Greeks for being their first common dialect and main ancestor of
Demotic Greek, but is also significant for its impact on
Western Civilization for being the first "international" language (or
lingua franca), and for being the original language of the
New Testament of the
Christianity Christian Bible and the medium for the teaching and spreading of
Christianity. Koine Greek was unofficially a first or second language in the
Roman Empire.
History
Koine Greek started taking shape as a common Greek dialect within the armies of
Alexander the Great. As the allied
Greece Greek states under the leadership of
Macedon, conquered and colonised the known world, their newly formed common dialect was spoken from
Egypt to the fringes of
India. Even though Koine Greek was shaped during the late
Classic Classic Era, the symbolic starting point of the second period of the Greek language that is known as '''Post-Classic''' begins at the death of Alexander the Great and the beginning of the
Hellenistic era in 323 BC. The closing of '''Post-Classic Greek''' and the passage into the third period of the
Greek language, which is known as
Medieval Greek, is symbolically assigned at the foundation of
Constantinople by
Constantine the Great in 330 AD. In that respect, the '''Post-Classic''' period of Greek refers to the creation and evolution of Koine Greek throughout the entire
Hellenistic and
Ancient Rome Roman eras of
Greek history until the start of the Middle Ages.
The term ''Koine''
'''Koine''' ({{Polytonic|Κοινή}}), which is Greek for "Common", is a term that had been previously applied by ancient scholars to several forms of Greek speech. A school of scholars such as
Apollonius Dyscolus and
Aelius Herodianus maintained the term ''Koine'' to refer to the
Proto-Greek language, while others would use it to refer to any vernacular form of Greek speech which deferred to the literary language. When '''Koine''' gradually became a language of literature, some people distinguished it in two forms: ''Hellenic'' (Greek), as the literary '''Post-Classic''' form, and ''Koine'' (common), as the spoken popular form. Others chose to refer to ''Koine'' as the '''Alexandrian dialect''' ("{{Polytonic|ΠεÏ?ὶ τῆς ἈλεξανδÏ?Îων διαλÎκτου}}"), meaning the dialect spread by
Alexander the Great (a term often used by modern Classicists).
Some modern linguists use '''
koine''' as a substantive meaning any local dialect or language that becomes commonly used in a wider area, after it has lost its very specific local characteristics.
Roots
The linguistic roots of the Common Greek dialect had been unclear since ancient times. During the
Hellenistic age, most scholars thought of Koine as the result of the mixture of the four main
Ancient Greek dialects, "{{Polytonic.html">Austria
Austrian_linguist P. Kretschmer in his book "Die Entstehung der Koine" (1901), while the
Germany German scholar Wilamowitz and the
France French linguist
Antoine Meillet, based on the intense
Ancient Greek Attic-Ionic elements of Koine - such as {{Polytonic|σσ instead of Ï„Ï„ and Ï?σ}} instead of {{Polytonic|Ï?Ï?}} ({{Polytonic|θάλασσα - θάλαττα, á¼€Ï?σενικός - á¼€Ï?Ï?ενικός}}) - considered Koine to be a simplified form of
Ionic Greek Ionic. The final answer that is academically accepted today was given by the
Greece Greek linguist G. N. Hatzidakis, who proved that, despite the "composition of the Four", the "stable nucleus" of Koine Greek is
Attic Greek Attic. In other words, Koine Greek can be regarded as the result of the admixture of the three
Ancient Greek dialects '''and''' Attic. The degree of importance of the non-Attic linguistic elements on Koine can vary depending on the region of the Hellenistic World. In that respect, the idioms of Koine spoken in the
Ionian colonies of
Asia Minor and
Cyprus would have more intense
Ionic Greek Ionic characteristics than others. The literary Koine of the Hellenistic age resembles Attic in such a degree that it is often mentioned as ''Common Attic''.
Sources of ''Koine''
The first scholars who studied Koine, both in Alexandrian and contemporary times, were classicists whose prototype had been the literary
Attic language of the Classic period, and would frown upon on any other kind of
Hellenic speech. Koine Greek was therefore considered a decayed form of Greek that was not worthy of attention. The reconsideration on the historical and linguistic importance of Koine Greek began only in the early
19th Century nineteenth century, where renowned scholars conducted series of studies on the evolution of Koine throughout the entire
Hellenistic and Roman period that it covered. The sources used on the studies of Koine have been numerous and of unequal reliability. The most significant ones, are the inscriptions of the Post-Classic periods and the
papyrus papyri, for being two kinds of texts that have authentic content and can be studied directly. Other significant sources are the biblical texts of the
Old Testament Old and the
New Testament New Testaments, the former being translated and the latter being written directly in Greek. The teaching of the Testaments was aimed at the most common people, and for that reason they're using the most popular language of the era. Information can also be drained from some
Atticism Atticist scholars of the
Hellenistic and Roman periods, who, in order to fight the evolution of the language, published works which compared the supposedly "correct"
Attic Greek Attic against the "wrong" Koine by citing examples. For example Phrynichus Arabius during the second century AD wrote:
* {{Polytonic|Βασίλισσα οá½?δείς τῶν ἈÏ?χαίων εἶπεν, ἀλλὰ βασίλεια á¼¢ βασιλίς}}.
** "''Basilissa'' (Queen), none of the Ancients said, but ''Basileia'' or ''Basilis''".
* {{Polytonic|ΔιωÏ?ία ἑσχάτως ἀδόκιμον, ἀντ' αυτοῦ δὲ Ï€Ï?οθεσμίαν á¼?Ï?εῖς}}.
** "''Dioria'' (deadline), badly illiteral, instead use ''Prothesmia''".
* {{Polytonic|Πάντοτε μὴ λÎγε, ἀλλὰ ἑκάστοτε καὶ διὰ παντός}}.
** "''Pantote'' (always) do not say, but ''Ekastote'' and ''Dia pantos''".
Other sources can be based on random findings such as inscriptions on vases written by popular painters, mistakes made by
Atticism Atticists due to their imperfect knowledge of pure
Attic, or even some surviving Greco-Latin glossaries of the Roman period, e.g:
* "{{Polytonic|ΚαλήμεÏ?ον, ἦλθες;}} - Bono die, venisti?" (Good day, you came?).
* "{{Polytonic|Ἐὰν θÎλεις, á¼?λθὲ μεθ' ἡμῶν.}} - Si vis, veni mecum." (If you want, come with us).
* "{{Polytonic|Ποῦ;}} - Ubi?" (Where?).
* "{{Polytonic|Î Ï?ὸς φίλον ἡμÎτεÏ?ον ΛεÏ?κιον.}} - Ad amicum nostrum Lucium." (To our friend Lucius).
* "{{Polytonic|Τί γὰÏ? ἔχει;}} - Quid enim habet?" (What does he have?—What is it with him?).
* "{{Polytonic|ἈÏ?Ï?ωστεῖ.}} - Aegrotat." (He's sick).
Finally, a very important source of information on the ancient Koine Greek is the
Modern Greek language with all its dialects and its ''Koine'' form and idioms, which have preserved most of the ancient language's oral linguistic details that the written tradition has lost. For example the
Pontic and Kappadocian dialects preserved the ancient pronunciation of {{Polytonic.html">Tsakonic preserved the long α instead of η ({{Polytonic
á¼?μÎÏ?α,_ἀστÏ?απά, λίμνα, χοά}} etc) and the other local characteristics of Doric Greek|Laconic. Idioms from the Southern part of the Greek-speaking regions (Dodecanese,
Cyprus etc), preserve the pronunciation of the double similar consonants ({{Polytonic|ἄλ-λος, Ἑλ-λάδα, θάλασ-σα}}), while others pronounce in many words Ï… as ου or preserve ancient double forms ({{Polytonic|κÏ?όμμυον - κÏ?εμ-μυον, Ï?άξ - Ï?ώξ}} etc). Linguistic phenomena like the above imply that those characteristics survived within Koine, which in turn had countless idiomatic variations in the Greek-speaking world.
Evolution from Ancient Greek
The study of all sources from the six centuries that are symbolically covered by Koine reveals linguistic changes from
Ancient Greek on phonology, morphology, syntax, vocabulary and other elements of the spoken language. Most new forms start off as rare and gradually become more frequent until they are established. From the linguistic changes that took place in Koine, Greek gained such a resemblance with its
Medieval Greek Medieval and
Modern Greek Modern successors that almost all characteristics of
Modern Greek can be traced in the surviving texts of Koine. As most of the changes between
Modern Greek Modern and
Ancient Greek Ancient Greek were introducted with Koine, today
Modern Greek Modern and Koine Greek are almost mutually intelligible.
'''Evolution in phonology:'''
*The ancient distinction between long and short vowels was gradually lost, and from the 2nd century BC all vowels were isochronic.
*Since the 2nd century BC, the means of accenting words changed from
Pitch accent pitch to
Stress (phonology) stress, meaning that the accented syllable is not pronounced in a musical tone but louder and/or stronger.
*The aspirate breathing (
aspiration (phonetics) aspiration), which was already lost in the
Ionic Greek Ionic idioms of
Asia Minor and the
Aeolic Greek Aeolic of
Lesbos Island Lesbos, stopped being pronounced and written in popular texts.
*Long diphthongs, which in older times were written with a subscript of {{Polytonic|ι}} after a long vowel, stopped being pronounced and written in popular texts.
*The diphthongs αι, ει, οι, and υι became single vowels. In this manner 'αι', which had already been converted by the Boetians into a long ε since the 4th century BC and written η (e.g. {{Polytonic|πής, χήÏ?ε, μÎμφομη}}), became in Koine, too, first a long ε and then short. The diphthong 'ει' had already merged with ι in the 5th century BC in regions such as
Argos or in the 4th c. BC in
Corinth (e.g. {{Polytonic.html">French language
French 'U' ([{{IPA|y}}] in
International Phonetic Alphabet IPA), which lasted until the 10th century AD. The diphthong 'ου' had already acquired the pronunciation of
Latin 'U' since the 6th century BC and preserved it in modern times.
*The diphthongs αυ and ευ came to be pronounced [av] and [ev] (via [aβ], [eβ]), but are partly
Assimilation (linguistics) assimilated to [af], [ef] before the
voiceless consonants θ, κ, ξ, π, σ, τ, φ, χ, and ψ.
*Simple vowels have preserved their ancient pronunciations, except η which is pronounced as ι, and υ, which retained the pronunciation [{{IPA|y}}] of modern
French language French 'U' only until the 10th c. AD, and was later also pronounced as ι. With those changes in phonology there were common spelling mistakes between υ and οι, while the sound of ι was multiplied (
iotacism).
*The consonants also preserved their ancient pronunciations to a great extent, except β, γ, δ, φ, θ, χ and ζ. Î’, Γ, Δ (Beta, Gamma, Delta), which were initially pronounced as b, g, d, acquired the sound of v, gh, and dh ([v] (via β), {{IPA|[ɣ], [ð]}} in
International Phonetic Alphabet IPA) that they still have today, except when preceded by a nasal consonant (μ, ν); in that case, they retain their ancient sounds (e.g. {{Polytonic|γαμβÏ?ός - γαmbÏ?ός, άνδÏ?ας - άndÏ?ας, άγγελος - άŋgελος}}). The latter three (Φ, Θ, Χ), which were initially pronounced as
aspirates ({{IPA.html">Modern English and
Modern Greek Greek.html" title="Meaning of /tÊ°/}} and {{IPA|/kÊ°/}} respectively), developed into the fricatives {{IPA|[f]}} (via {{IPA|[ɸ]}}), {{IPA|[θ]}}, and {{IPA|[x]}}. Finally the letter Ζ, which is still categorised as a double consonant with ξ and ψ, because it was initially pronounced as σδ (sd), later acquired the sound of Z as it appears in Greek">Greek.
Koine Greek in the Old Testament
The
Deuterocanonical books is a series of texts that was not part of the Jewish
Tanakh (scripture) and was later included in the
Old Testament by the
Eastern Orthodox Church Eastern Christianity, and also recognized by
Catholics. It cannot be said for certain whether the surviving Greek text is a translation, as no
Hebrew language Hebrew text was ever found. The First
Books of the Maccabees Book of the Maccabees, which starts the Deutrocanon, was written in the 1st or 2nd century BC by an unknown
Jewish author. It is a very informative source on Greek Koine as most writers and scholars at the time used
Attic for their literary work. The first of the sample texts below is from its first ten verses.
Sample texts
''Note: The phonetic transcriptions aim to represent an intermediate stage during the evolution of Greek phonology from
Ancient Greek phonology Ancient to Hellenistic.
The First Books of the Maccabees Book of the Maccabees
#{{Polytonic|Καὶ á¼?γÎνετο μετὰ τὸ πατάξαι ἈλÎξανδÏ?ον τὸν Φιλίππου Μακεδόνα, ὃς á¼?ξῆλθεν á¼?κ γῆς Χεττιιμ, καὶ á¼?πάταξεν τὸν ΔαÏ?εῖον βασιλÎα ΠεÏ?σῶν καὶ Μήδων καὶ á¼?βασίλευσεν ἀντ᾽ αá½?τοῦ, Ï€Ï?ότεÏ?ον á¼?πὶ τὴν Ἑλλάδα.}}
{{IPA|[ke ejéneto metá to patákse aléksandron ton pÊ°ilÃpu makeðóna, os eksÃltÊ°en ek jis kÊ°etiÃm, ke epátaksen ton ðarÃon βasiléa persón ke mÃðon ke eβasÃleɸsen ant aɸtú, próteron epà tin eláða.]}}˜
''And so it happened, after Alexander (son) of Philip the Macedonian, he came out of the land of Cethim, and smote Darius ruler of Persians and Medes, and reigned in his stead as the ruler of Greece.''
#{{Polytonic|καὶ συνεστήσατο πολÎμους πολλοὺς καὶ á¼?κÏ?άτησεν ὀχυÏ?ωμάτων καὶ ἔσφαξεν βασιλεῖς τῆς γῆς·}}
{{IPA|[ke synestÃsato polémus polús ke ekrátisen okÊ°yromáton ke espÊ°aksen βasilÃs tis jis]}}
''And he waged many wars, conquered strongholds and slew Kings of the Earth.''
#{{Polytonic|καὶ διῆλθεν ἕως ἄκÏ?ων τῆς γῆς καὶ ἔλαβεν σκῦλα πλήθους á¼?θνῶν. καὶ ἡσÏ?χασεν ἡ γῆ á¼?νώπιον αá½?τοῦ, καὶ ὑψώθη, καὶ á¼?πήÏ?θη ἡ καÏ?δία αá½?τοῦ.}}
{{IPA|[ke ðiÃltÊ°en éos ákron tis jis ke élaβen skýla plÃtÊ°us étÊ°non, ke isýkÊ°asen i ji enópion aɸtú, ke ypsótÊ°i, ke epÃrtÊ°i i karðÃa aɸtú.]}}
''And he went to the edges of the Earth and received the spoils of many nations, and the Earth went quiet before him, and his heart was risen and lifted up.''
#{{Polytonic|καὶ συνῆξεν δÏ?ναμιν ἰσχυÏ?ὰν σφόδÏ?α καὶ ἦÏ?ξεν χωÏ?ῶν á¼?θνῶν καὶ Ï„Ï…Ï?άννων, καὶ á¼?γÎνοντο αá½?Ï„á¿· εἰς φόÏ?ον.}}
{{IPA|[ke synÃksen ðýnamin iskÊ°yrán spÊ°oðra ki Ãrksen kÊ°orón etÊ°nón ke tyránon, ke ejénonto aɸtó is pʰóron.]}}
''And he gathered strength and power, and he conquered countries of nations and tyrants, and they all became his subjects.''
#{{Polytonic|καὶ μετὰ ταῦτα ἔπεσεν �πὶ τὴν κοίτην καὶ ἔγνω ὅτι ἀποθνῄσκει.}}
{{IPA|[ke metá táɸta épesen epà tin kÃtin ke éɣno óti apotÊ°nÃski.]}}
''And after all of these, he fell down upon his bed, and he knew that he was meant to die.''
#{{Polytonic|καὶ á¼?κάλεσεν τοὺς παῖδας αá½?τοῦ τοὺς á¼?νδόξους τοὺς συνεκτÏ?όφους αá½?τοῦ á¼?κ νεότητος καὶ διεῖλεν αá½?τοῖς τὴν βασιλείαν αá½?τοῦ ἔτι αá½?τοῦ ζῶντος.}}
{{IPA|[ke ekálesen tus péðas aɸtú tus enðóksus tus synektrópÊ°us aɸtú ek neótitos ke ðiÃlen aɸtýs tin βasilÃan aɸtú éti aɸtú zóntos.]}}
''And he summoned his noble servants that were brought up with him in youth, and he divided his Kingdom between them while he was still alive.''
#{{Polytonic|καὶ á¼?βασίλευσεν ἈλÎξανδÏ?ος ἔτη δώδεκα καὶ ἀπÎθανεν.}}
{{IPA|[ke eβasÃleɸsen aléksandros éti ðóðeka ke apétÊ°anen.]}}
''And Alexander ruled for twelve years, and he died.''
#{{Polytonic|καὶ á¼?πεκÏ?άτησαν οἱ παῖδες αá½?τοῦ, ἕκαστος á¼?ν Ï„á¿· τόπῳ αá½?τοῦ.}}
{{IPA|[ke epekrátisan y péðes aɸtú, ékastos en to tópo aɸtú.]}}
''And his servants ruled in his stead, each in his own place.''
#{{Polytonic|καὶ á¼?Ï€Îθεντο πάντες διαδήματα μετὰ τὸ ἀποθανεῖν αá½?τὸν καὶ οἱ υἱοὶ αá½?τῶν ὀπίσω αá½?τῶν ἔτη πολλὰ καὶ á¼?πλήθυναν κακὰ á¼?ν τῇ γῇ.}}
{{IPA|[ke epétÊ°ento pántes ðiaðÃmata metá to apotÊ°anÃn aɸtón ke y yjý aɸtón opÃso aɸtón éti polá ke eplÃtÊ°ynan kaká en ti ji.]}}
''And they all took crowned themselves after his death, and so did their sons after them for many years, and evils were increased on the earth.''
#{{Polytonic|καὶ á¼?ξῆλθεν á¼?ξ αá½?τῶν ῥίζα á¼?μαÏ?τωλὸς Ἀντίοχος Ἐπιφανὴς υἱὸς Ἀντιόχου τοῦ βασιλÎως, ὃς ἦν ὅμηÏ?α á¼?ν Ῥώμῃ· καὶ á¼?βασίλευσεν á¼?ν ἔτει ἑκατοστῷ καὶ Ï„Ï?ιακοστῷ καὶ ἑβδόμῳ βασιλείας Ἑλλήνων.}}
{{IPA|[ke eksÃltÊ°en eks aɸtón rÃza amartolós antÃokÊ°os epipÊ°anÃs yjós antiókÊ°u tu βasiléos, os in ómira en rómi, ke eβasÃleɸsen en éti ekatostó ke triakostó ke eβðómo βasilÃas elÃnon.]}}
''And out of them came an evil offspring, Antiochus the Illustrious, son of King Antiochus, who had been a hostage in Rome, and ruled in the hundred and thirty-seventh year of the kingdom of the Greeks.''
The Lord's Prayer (Gospel of Matthew Matt. 6:9-13)
:{{polytonic|ΠάτεÏ? ἡμῶν á½? á¼?ν τοῖς οá½?Ï?ανοῖς á¼?γιασθήτω τὸ ὄνομά σου·}}
:{{polytonic|á¼?λθÎτω ἡ βασιλεία σου· γενηθήτω τὸ θÎλημά σου, ὡς á¼?ν οá½?Ï?ανῷ καὶ á¼?πὶ τῆς γῆς·}}
:{{polytonic|τὸν ἄÏ?τον ἡμῶν τὸν á¼?πιοÏ?σιον δὸς ἡμῖν σήμεÏ?ον·}}
:{{polytonic|καὶ ἄφες ἡμῖν Ï„á½° ὀφελήματα ἡμῶν, ὡς καὶ ἡμεῖς ἀφίεμεν τοῖς ὀφειλÎταις ἡμῶν·}}
:{{polytonic|καὶ μὴ εἰσενÎγκῃς ἡμᾶς εἰς πειÏ?ασμόν, ἀλλὰ Ï?ῦσαι ἡμᾶς ἀπὸ τοῦ πονηÏ?οῦ.}}
:{{polytonic|á½?τι σοῦ á¼?στιν ἡ βασιλεία καὶ ἡ δÏ?ναμις καὶ ἡ δόξα εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας·}}
:{{polytonic|ἀμήν.}}
Transcription in Post-Classic pronunciation as used by the
Church of Greece Greek Orthodox Church:
:Pater imon, o en tis ouranis, aghiasthito to onoma sou;
:eltheto i basilia sou; ghenithito to thelima sou, os en ourano, ke epi tis ghis;
:ton arton imon ton epiousion dos imin simeron;
:ke afes imin ta ofilimata imon, os ke imis afiemen tis ofiletes imon;
:ke mi isenengis imas is pirasmon, ala rise imas apo tou ponirou.
:Oti sou estin i basilia, ke i dunamis, ke i doksa is tous eonas;
:amin.
The Nicene Creed
{{polytonic|ΠιστεÏ?ω εἰς ἕνα Θεόν, ΠατÎÏ?α, παντοκÏ?άτοÏ?α, ποιητὴν οá½?Ï?ανοῦ καὶ γῆς, á½?Ï?ατῶν τε πάντων καὶ ἀοÏ?άτων.
Καὶ εἰς ἕνα ΚÏ?Ï?ιον Ἰησοῦν ΧÏ?ιστόν, τὸν Υἱὸν τοῦ Θεοῦ τὸν μονογενῆ, τὸν á¼?κ τοῦ ΠατÏ?ὸς γεννηθÎντα Ï€Ï?ὸ πάντων τῶν αἰώνων. Φῶς á¼?κ φωτός, Θεὸν ἀληθινὸν á¼?κ Θεοῦ ἀληθινοῦ, γεννηθÎντα, οá½? ποιηθÎντα, á½?μοοÏ?σιον Ï„á¿· ΠατÏ?ί, δι’ οὗ Ï„á½° πάντα á¼?γÎνετο.
Τὸν δι’ ἡμᾶς τοὺς ἀνθÏ?ώπους καὶ διὰ τὴν ἡμετÎÏ?αν σωτηÏ?ίαν κατελθόντα á¼?κ τῶν οá½?Ï?ανῶν καὶ σαÏ?κωθÎντα á¼?κ ΠνεÏ?ματος Ἁγίου καὶ ΜαÏ?ίας τῆς ΠαÏ?θÎνου καὶ á¼?νανθÏ?ωπήσαντα.
ΣταυÏ?ωθÎντα τε ὑπÎÏ? ἡμῶν á¼?πὶ Ποντίου Πιλάτου καὶ παθόντα καὶ ταφÎντα.
Καὶ ἀναστάντα τῇ Ï„Ï?ίτῃ ἡμÎÏ?á¾³ κατὰ Ï„á½°Ï‚ ΓÏ?αφάς.
Καὶ ἀνελθόντα εἰς τοὺς οá½?Ï?ανοÏ?Ï‚ καὶ καθεζόμενον á¼?κ δεξιῶν τοῦ ΠατÏ?ός.
Καὶ πάλιν á¼?Ï?χόμενον μετὰ δόξης κÏ?ῖναι ζῶντας καὶ νεκÏ?οÏ?Ï‚, οὗ τῆς βασιλείας οá½?κ ἔσται Ï„Îλος.
Καὶ εἰς τὸ Πνεῦμα τὸ á¼?γιον, τὸ κÏ?Ï?ιον, τὸ ζωοποιόν, τὸ á¼?κ τοῦ ΠατÏ?ὸς á¼?κποÏ?ευόμενον, τὸ σὺν ΠατÏ?ί καὶ Υἱῷ συμπÏ?οσκυνοÏ?μενον καὶ συνδοξαζόμενον, τὸ λαλῆσαν διὰ τῶν Ï€Ï?οφητῶν.
Εἰς μίαν �γίαν, καθολικὴν καὶ ἀποστολικὴν Ἐκκλησίαν.
Ὁμολογῶ ἓν βάπτισμα εἰς ἄφεσιν á¼?μαÏ?τιῶν.
Î Ï?οσδοκῶ ἀνάστασιν νεκÏ?ῶν.
Καὶ ζωὴν τοῦ μÎλλοντος αἰῶνος.
Ἀμήν.}}
References
* Abel, F.-M. ''Grammaire du grec biblique''
* Andriotis, Nikolaos P. ''History of the Greek language''
Category:Hellenic languages and dialects
Category:Ancient languages Greek, Koine
ast:Koiné
de:Koiné
es:Koiné
fr:Koinè
gl:Koiné
nl:Koinē
ja:コイ�ー
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fi:Koinee
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Koine Greek
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