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Monotheism
*** Shopping-Tip: Monotheism
see
Monotheism
'''Monotheism''' (in
Greek language Greek ''μόνος'' = single and ''θεός'' =
God), in contrast with
polytheism, is the belief in one god, simply put it is the belief in a single deity. This is often combined with the second definition of
Theism to provide the common understanding of monotheism as the belief in only one, omniscient, omnipotent and omnipresent as well as transcendent and immanent, personal
God. 'Theistic Monotheism' is a more accurate term for what is usually meant by the word monotheism.
In traditional
Jewish,
Christian, and
Islamic thought, only those religions derived from
Bible biblical sources were considered monotheistic, with monotheism being regarded as their most basic belief. They have traditionally interpreted scriptures as
exclusive monotheism.
Middle-Eastern traditions: monotheism
{{main|Abrahamic religion}}
Pre-biblical Middle-Eastern religions
Ancient Middle-Eastern religions may have worshipped a single god within a pantheon and the abolition of all others, as in the case of the
Aten cult in the reign of the
Ancient Egypt Egyptian
pharaoh Akhenaten, under the chiefly influence of the Eastern-originating
Nefertiti.
Iconoclasm during this pharaoh's rule is considered a chief origin for the subsequent destruction by some groups of idols, holding that no other God before the preferred deity (dually and subtly acknowledging the existence of the other gods, but only as foes to be destroyed for their drawing of attention away from the primary deity). Hinduism was also a pre-biblical monotheisic faith, worshipping one divine force known as the
Atman, or the Brahman.
The
Hyksos, continued an inheritance of Akhenaten's religious policies. Other issues like the
Divine Right of Kings may possibly also stems from pharaonic laws on the ruler being the
demigod or representative of the
Creator on Earth. The massive
tombs in the
Egyptian pyramids which aligned with
astronomical observations, exemplify this relationship between the pharaoh and the heavens and was subsequently adopted by Christian
royal family royalty by claiming a direct lease on ruling by the grace of God.
Judaism and the Hebrew Bible
{{main3|Judaism | Hebrew Bible | Jewish principles of faith}}
=Monotheism, polytheism or monism?
=
{|width="100%"
|+'''The Shema'''
|Hebrew ||שמע ישר×?ל ×™×™ ×?×œ×”× ×• ×™×™ ×?חד
|-
|Common transliteration ||Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad
|-
|English ||Hear, O Israel! The LORD is our God! The LORD is One!
|}
The literal word meanings are roughly as follows:
*Shema — 'listen' or 'hear.' The word also implies comprehension.
*Yisrael — 'Israel', in the sense of the people or congregation of Israel
*Adonai — often translated as 'Lord', it is used in place of the
Tetragrammaton
*Eloheinu — 'our God', a plural noun (said to imply majesty rather than plural number) with a pronominal suffix ('our')
*Echad — 'one'
This is a declaration of the fundamental nature of God as being one whole "unity" from the suggestive plurality of the Elohim.
'''Gen.1:26''' And Elohim said, Let '''us''' make man in '''our''' image, after '''our''' likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth.
Elohim is morphologically plural in form in Hebrew, but generally takes singular agreement when it refers to the God of Israel (so the verb meaning "said" in this verse is ''wayyomer'' וי×?מר with singular inflection, and not ''wayyomru'' וי×?מרו with plural inflection), and yet in this case the "our" and "us" seems to create a presumption of plurality.
Judaism, however, insists that the "LORD is One," as in the Shema, and at least two interpretations exist to explain the Torah's use of the plural form. The first is that the plural form "Elohim" is analogous to the royal plural as used in English. The second is that, in order to set an example for human kings, Elohim consulted with his court (the angels, just created) before making a major decision (creating man).
=Monotheistic interpretations
=
In the west, the
Hebrew Bible has been the
primary source describing how and when Monotheism was introduced into the middle east and the west. As believed by followers of some of the Abrahamic religions, it teaches that when
Abraham discovered God (
Genesis 12:1-9 [http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=12] ; 13:14-18 [http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=13] ; 15 [http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=15] 18 [http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=18] ; and 22 [http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=22]), he thus became the world's first Monotheist. However, recent sources confirm that the Hindu civilization of the Indus practiced Hinduism, a monotheistic faith, before Abraham. According to these, until then, in
ancient history all cultures believed in a variety of multiple deities such as in
idolatry, forces and creatures of
nature as in
animism, or in celestial bodies as in
astrology, but did not know the one and only true
Names of God in Judaism God.
However, the Hebrew Bible teaches that, at
Creation according to Genesis Creation,
Adam and Eve knew God (and so did their descendants) but that over the ages, God and his name were forgotten. This is how one of the most important
Jewish sages,
Maimonides describes the process in his work the
Mishneh Torah:
:''In the days of
Generations of Adam Enosh mankind made a huge error...they reasoned that since the Lord created the
stars and the heavenly spheres and placed them in the skies giving them great significance, and they serve before Him, it is therefore fitting to praise and elevate them and give them honor believing this to be the Lord's will to honor that which He makes great and honorable...The people then built
altars to worship the stars and to praise and bow down to them...and this was the essence of idol worship (''avoda zara'')...After a few generations
false prophets arose and said that the Lord had actually commanded people to worship the stars...and they built images in their honor...spreading these false images by building them in gathering places, under trees, on tops of hills, and in valleys, gathering people who bowed down to them declaring: 'Such and such an image brings good or bad luck and therefore fear it'...after a number of generations, the Divine Name was completely forgotten...until the mighty one (
Abraham), began to question this in his mind and asked 'How could it be that the heavenly sphere moves without a Mover behind it? because it is impossible that it moves itself', and he had no teacher and no-one to inform him for he lived in
Ur Kasdim Ur of the Chaldees surrounded by foolish idol worshippers...He (Abraham) subsequently arose and made it known to the people that there is only one Lord in the entire world and that only He should be worshipped, gathering people from city to city and kingdom to kingdom until he came to the land of
Canaan calling out as it says: '[Abraham] planted a tamarisk tree in
Beersheba, and there he called in the name of God, Lord of the Universe (''El olam''). (Genesis 21:33)' (
Maimonides, ''
Mishneh Torah'', ''Sefer Mada'' ("Book of Knowledge"), Chapter 1, ''Hilchos Avodah Zarah'' ("Laws of [forbidden] idol worship"). [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive.asp?AID=6780 Hebrew text])
Judaism claims to have an important advantage over all other religions because its earliest
Jewish history history,
Jewish principles of faith beliefs,
613 mitzvot laws, and
Minhag practices are preserved and taught in the
Torah (the
Hebrew Bible) which provides the clearest textual source for the rise and development of what is named Judaism's
ethical monotheism which means that:
:''(1) There is one God from whom emanates one morality for all humanity. (2) God's primary demand of people is that they act decently toward one another...The God of ethical monotheism is the God first revealed to the world in the Hebrew Bible. Through it, we can establish God's four primary characteristics:
#God is supranatural.
#God is personal.
#God is good.
#God is holy.
:''...in the study of Hebrew history: Israel's monotheism was an ethical monotheism.'' [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/mono.html Dennis Prager]
When Moses returned with the
Ten Commandments. The first stated that "you shall have no other gods before me" (
Exodus 20:3). Furthermore, Israelites recite the
Shema Yisrael ("Hear O' Israel") which partly says, "Hear, O' Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one." Monotheism was and is the central tenet of the Israelite and the
Judaism Jewish religion.
Christian view
{{Main|Christianity}}
Although
Christianity Christians belief believe in one God, the vast majority of Christians are taught to profess that this God is, in fact, manifest in three persons, or personas, of the one God:
God the Father, God
the Son, and God the
Holy Spirit (collectively called the
Trinity), the classic Christian "three in one: one in three" formula. Most contemporary Christians consider these personas to be "aspects" of the one deity, but some older Christian theology took the concept more literally. Typically, Christian orthodoxy holds that these three persons are not independent but are ''homoousios'' (a Hellenistic Greek transliteration), meaning sharing the same essence or substance of divinity. However, critics have suggested that Christianity is a form of
Tritheism. Christians will often counter this claim by asserting that since they only believe in one eternity, and that God is eternity, there can only be one God that subsists in three persons. Moreover, some minority sects derived from Christianity, such as the
Jehovah's Witnesses, deny the idea of Trinity.
Rastafari movement Rastafarians, like many Christians, hold that God is both a unity and a trinity, in their case God being
Haile Selassie. Rastas see themselves, and possibly all individuals, as the Holy Spirit element of the Trinity, with Haile Selassie as an incarnation of both God the Father and God the Son. Haile Selassie is also seen as the head, and the Rastafarians as the body, of God.
Veneration of Saints by christians also, to a certain aspect raises questions about monotheistic nature of Christianity. Especially because there are specific churches dedicated for each saint. Roman Catholics believe in praying to saints instead of god as "an indirect way to reach god". A similar practice in Islam would be considered
shirk (the
sin of
polytheism).
Islamic view
{{main|Islam}}
{|width="100%"
|+
Qur'an, Surah Al Baqarah 2:115
!
Arabic language Arabic
|ولله المشرق والمغرب Ù?اينما تولوا Ù?ثم وجه الله ان الله وسع عليم
|-
!
Transliteration
|{{unicode|wa-lillahi l-maÅ¡riqu wal-maÄ¡ribu fÄ?ynamÄ? tuwallÅ« faṯamma waÄŸhu allahi inna Allaha wasi‘un ‘alÄ«mun}}
|-
!
Translation
|To Allah belong the east and the west: whithersoever ye turn, there is the presence of Allah. For Allah is all-pervading, all-knowing.
|}
From the above, we can see that--like Judaism and Christianity--the Qur'an's interpretation of God is that of a being whose spiritual presence is experienced in the universe.
Islam has a simple expression of monotheism. The Arabic word for monotheism is
Tawhid Tawhīd means 'unification', i.e. to unify or to keep something unified. The
Shahadah (الشهادة), or the Islamic creed, is the declaration of belief in the unity of God (
Allah in Arabic) and the prophethood of
Muhammad. Its recitation is considered one of the
Five Pillars of Islam by
Sunni Muslims. When sincerely stated aloud, one is considered to have officially declared oneself a convert to Islam. The (
Salaat salaat) in Islam, for example, involve explicit monotheistic testimony. Islam declares the "Unity of God" as their primary teaching. Furthermore, Islam considers Christianity's Trinity as a distortion of
Jesus's original teaching after the fact.
Bahá'à view
{{main|Bahá'à Faith}}
The
Three Onenesses Oneness of God is one of the core teachings of the
Bahá'à Faith. In Bahá'à belief, God is omnipotent, omniscient, and perfect. Bahá'Ãs believe that, although people have different concepts of God and his nature, and call him by different names, everyone is speaking of the same one Being. The
Obligatory Bahá'à Prayers obligatory prayers in the Bahá'à Faith involve explicit monotheistic testimony.
The Bahá'à Faith also accepts the authenticity of the founders of faiths with monotheism such as
Gaudiya Vaishnavism, which focuses on worship of
Krishna as
God or even what are sometimes interpreted as
Atheism atheistic teachings, such as
Buddhism. Bahá'Ãs believe in the
Bahá'à Faith and the unity of religion unity of religion and that
progressive revelation revelation is progressive, and thus that earlier non-monotheisms are simply less mature understandings of the unity of God.
In regards to the Trinity, Bahá'Ãs believe that the Trinity is symbolic of the light from the one God being reflected on pure mirrors which are Jesus and the Holy Spirit.
Source of Abrahamic religions
Although the major source of both
Christianity and
Judaism is the
Hebrew Bible, Judaism and Christianity like all cultures have received influences from various non-biblical religions present in
Egypt and
Syria. This can be seen by the
Torah's reference to
Ancient Egypt Egyptian culture in Genesis and the story of Moses, as well as the mention of
Hittite and
Hurrian cultures of Syria in the Genesis story of Abraham. The Hebrews are a group of the Canaanite peoples who prior to the development of monotheism practiced a
polytheistic religion.
Central- and East-Asian traditions: monotheism
Hinduism
{{main|Hinduism}}
The
Vedas are the most sacred texts (
shruti) in Hinduism. The oldest of them, the
Rigveda, in its youngest books (books 1 and 10) contains evidence for emerging monotheistic thought. Often quoted are
pada 1.164.46c,
:''{{IAST|ékam sád vÃprÄ?Ì? bahudhÄ?Ì? vadanti}}''
:"To what is One, sages give many a title" (trans.
Ralph T.H. Griffith Griffith)
and hymns 10.129 and 10.130, dealing with a creator deity, especially verse 10.129.7:
:''{{IAST| iyám vÃsṛṣá¹iḥ yátaḥ Ä?babhûva / yádi vÄ? dadhé yádi vÄ? ná / yáḥ asya ádhyaká¹£aḥ paramé vyóman / sáḥ aá¹…gá veda yádi vÄ? ná véda}}''
:"He, the first origin of this creation, whether he formed it all or did not form it, / Whose eye controls this world in highest heaven, he verily knows it, or perhaps he knows not." (trans. Griffith)
''{{IAST|Ékam sát}}''
in 1.164.46c means "One Being" or "One Truth". In
Hinduism, views are broad and range from
polytheism,
monism,
dualism,
pantheism,
panentheism, alternatively called monistic theism by some scholars, to strict
monotheism, see
Hindu denominations.
Contemporary Hinduism is divided into four major divisions,
Vaishnavism,
Shaivism,
Shaktism, and
Smartism {{fact}}. The denominations all believe in one God but differ in their conceptions. The two primary form of differences are between the two monotheistic denominations of
Vaishnavism which conceives God as
Vishnu and
Shaivism, which conceives God as
Shiva. Other aspects of God are in fact aspects of Vishnu or Shiva.
Smartas, who follow
Advaita philosophy, are monists, and view multiple manifestations of the one God or source of being. Hindu monists see one unity, with the personal Gods, different aspects of only One Supreme Being, like a single beam of light separated into colours by a prism, and are valid to worship. Some of the Smarta aspects of God include
Devi,
Vishnu,
Ganesh, and
Siva. It is the Smarta view that dominates the view of Hinduism in the West as Smarta belief includes
Advaita belief and the first Hindu saint, who significantly brought Hinduism to the west was
Swami Vivekananda, an adherent of Advaita. Not till much later, gurus, such as
A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, and others, brought a Vaishnavite perspective to the West. By contrast with Smarta/Advaita belief,
Vaishnavism and
Shaivism follows a singular concept of God, or
panentheistic monotheism or panentheistic
monism.
For certain sects of Hindus, it is believed that God has six attributes. However, the actual number of auspicious qualities of God, are '''countless''', with the following six qualities being the ''most important.''
* The number six is invariably given, but the individual attributes listed vary. One set of attributes (and their common interpretations) are:
**''JñÄ?na'' (Omniscience), defined as the power to know about all beings simultaneously;
**''Aishvarya'' (
Sovereignty, derived from the word Ishvara), which consists in unchallenged rule over all;
**''Shakti'' (Energy), or power, which is the capacity to make the impossible possible;
**''Bala'' (Strength), which is the capacity to support everything by will and without any fatigue;
**''VÄ«rya'' (Vigor), or valour which indicates the power to retain immateriality as the supreme being in spite of being the material cause of mutable creations; and
**''Tejas'' (Splendor), which expresses his self-sufficiency and the capacity to overpower everything by his spiritual effulgence.; (''cited from ''Bhakti Schools of Vedanta'', by Swami TapasyÄ?nanda.'')
Additionally, many Hindus, including
Smartas, believe in God having three aspects as
Brahma,
Vishnu and
Shiva, the
Trimurti (also called the Hindu trinity.) and these different aspects are part of the one and the same God.
Conflicts between the denominations are rare though. A
Rigvedic verse illustrates this theme of tolerance by stating that "Truth is One, though the sages know it variously." This is in contrast with some beliefs of other religious traditions, where one must believe in God being one aspect in rejection or disdain of other beliefs.
For further information, please see
Hindu views on monotheism.
=Ayyavazhi
=
{{main|Ayyavazhi}}
Though
Ayyavazhi, a religion originating in the 19th century, is a monistic religion it also accepts almost all deities in
Hinduism. In the first half of its scripture
Akilattirattu Ammanai it says about the previous six
yugas aeons where
Narayana incarnates to destroy the different aspects of
Kroni. But in the seventh,
Kali Yukam the sixth fragment of Kroni,
Kaliyan spread in the mind of people as evil force. There is a universal change as Kaliyan claimed all the power of different godheads as boons. So it was impossible for any godheads to destroy him. So the power of all deities were unified into
Vaikundar who was the incarnation of
Ekam, the Ultimate Soul or Paramatama.
The activities of Vaikundar such as
Ayyavazhi mythology#Marriage with the Deities Unifying the Deities, shows Vaikundar reigning as a king by controlling all other deities. So after the incarnation of Vaikundar all the deities were under Vaikundar and he was considered as a Supreme deity and the one and only worshippable God there after.
Sikhism
{{main|Sikhism}}
Sikhism is a distinct monotheistic faith that rose in northern India during the 16th and 17th centuries. Sikhs believe in one, timeless, omnipresent, supreme creator. The opening verse of the
Guru Granth Sahib, known as the
Mool Mantra signifies this:
:{{lang-pa|à©´ ਸਤਿ ਨਾਮà©? ਕਰਤਾ ਪà©?ਰਖà©? ਨਿਰà¨à¨‰ ਨਿਰਵੈਰà©? ਅਕਾਲ ਮੂਰਤਿ ਅਜੂਨੀ ਸੈà¨à©° ਗà©?ਰ ਪà©?ਰਸਾਦਿ ॥}}
:
Transliteration: Ik Å?aá¹…kÄ?r sat nÄ?m karatÄ? purakh nirabha'u niravair akÄ?l mÅ«rat ajÅ«nÄ« saibhaá¹? gur prasÄ?d.
:
English language English: One Universal Creator God. The Name Is Truth. Creative Being Personified. No Fear. No Hatred. Image Of The Undying, Beyond Birth, Self-Existent. By Guru's Grace ~
It is often said that the 1430 pages of the Guru Granth Sahib are all expansions on the Mool Mantra.
Although the Sikhs have many names for God, they all refer to the same supreme being.
Taoism
{{main|Taoism}}
Tao is
The Ultimate that cannot be defined in words, with nothingness as its nature and contains other deities. Unlike the Middle East origined monotheisms, The Tao has no personal attributes such as holiness, love and righteousness. This makes Taoism exempt from the problems of
theodicy.
Zoroastrianism
{{main|Zoroastrianism}}
Zoroastrianism is considered by some to perhaps be one of the earliest monotheistic belief to have evolved among humanity, though some derivatives of it are not fully so, as the chief god in derivatives such as
Zurvanism is not the sole creator.
Zoroastrian monotheism has had major influence on the religions of the middle eastern monotheisms in adaptations of such concepts as heavens, hells, judgement day and messianic figures.
Several professors, of archaeology and of
biblical criticism, connect Zoroastrianism and the religion of the early Israelites. For example, they have made the controversial claim that many stories in the
Old Testament were actually initially developed by scribes employed by King
Josiah (
7th century BC) to rationalize monotheistic belief in YHVH. This theory observes that the neighbouring countries, such as
Egypt,
Persian Empire Persia etc, although keeping written records, have no writings about the stories of the
Bible or its main characters before
650 BC. Such claims are detailed in ''Who Were the Early Israelites?'' by
William G. Dever. Another such book is ''The Bible Unearthed'' by Neil A. Silberman and colleagues, Simon and Schuster.
Can there be different types of monotheism?
{{main|Comparative religion}}
Some argue that there are various forms of monotheism, including:
*
Theism a term that refers to the belief in the existence of a god or divine being.
*
Deism is a form of monotheism in which it is believed that one god exists. However, a deist rejects the idea that this god intervenes in the world. Hence any notion of special
revelation is impossible, and the nature of god can only be known through reason and observation from nature. A deist thus rejects the miraculous, and the claim to knowledge made for religious groups and texts.
*
Monistic Theism is the type of monotheism found in Hinduism and in the scriptures of the semitic religions. The long time Monistic interpretation of Hindu scriptures is different from the interpretation of Semitic scriptures which claim exclusive monotheism as it encompasses
pantheism,
monism, and at the same time includes the concept of a personal God as an universal, omnipotent supreme being. The other types of monotheism are qualified monism, the school of
Ramanuja or
Vishishtadvaita, which admits that the universe is part of God, or
Narayana, a type of
panentheism, but there is a plurality of souls within this supreme Being and
Dvaita, which differs in that it is dualistic, as God is separate and not panentheistic.
*
Pantheism holds that
Universe the Universe itself is
Deity God. The existence of a transcendent supreme extraneous to nature is denied. Depending on how this is understood, such a view may be presented as tantamount to
atheism,
deism or
theism.
*
Panentheism, or Monistic Monotheism, is a form of
theism that holds that God contains, but is not identical to,
Universe the Universe. The One God is omnipotent and all-pervading, the universe is part of God, and God is ''both''
Immanent and
Transcendent. This is also the view of
Process theology and also
Vishistadvaita Vedanta Hinduism. According to this school, from
Ramanuja, the universe is part of God but God is not equal to the universe but in fact transcends it as well. However, unlike Process theology, God in Vishistadvaita Vedanta Hinduism is omnipotent. Panentheism is thought of as "God is within the universe as the
soul is within the body".
*
Substance monotheism, found e.g. in some indigenous African religions, holds that the many gods are different forms of a single underlying substance, and that this underlying substance is God. This view has vague similarities to the Christian
Trinity trinitarian view of three persons sharing one nature.
Comparison to polytheism
{{main|Polytheism}}
In contrast, see
polytheism, which holds that there are many
Deity gods.
Dualism teaches that there are two independent
Divinity divine beings or eternal principles, the one
Goodness and value theory good, and the other
evil, as set forth especially in early
Zoroastrianism (modern Zoroastrianism is strictly monotheistic), but more fully in its later offshoots in
Gnosticism Gnostic systems, such as
Manichaeism.
Monotheism can be divided into different types on the basis of its attitude towards polytheism: inclusive monotheism claims that all polytheistic deities are just different names for the single monotheistic God;
Smartism, a denomination of Hinduism, follows this belief and holds that God is one but has different aspects and can be called by different names (this belief dominate the view of Hinduism in the West); exclusive monotheism, on the other hand, claims that these deities are false and distinct from the one God, either invented, demonic, or simply incorrect, as
Vaishnavism, a denomination of Hinduism, regards the worship of anyone other than
Vishnu. Exclusive monotheism is a well-known tenet in the beliefs of the
Abrahamic religions.
Further reading
*Dever, William G.; (
2003). ''Who Were the Early Israelites?'', William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, MI.
*Silberman, Neil A.; and colleagues, Simon and Schuster; (
2001) ''The Bible Unearthed'' New York.
*Whitelam, Keith; (
1997). ''The Invention of Ancient Israel'', Routledge, New York.
See also
*
Abrahamic religion
*
Ethnocide
*
Henotheism
*
Hindu views on monotheism
*
Kathenotheism
*
Monistic theism
*
Semitic monotheism
*
Spiritism
*
Psychology of religion
External links
Zoroastrian
-
Brief Description of Zoroastrianism
-
Zoroastrianism's Influence
Jewish
-
Jewish Monotheism chabad.org
-
Biblical Monotheism
Christianity
-
Belief of Trinity among Christians
Islam
-
Islaam Website
Shaivism
-
Shiva as the supreme God.
Vaishnavism
-
Dvaita Vaishnavite view of Vishnu.
-
Homage only to Vishnu.
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