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Moses
*** Shopping-Tip: Moses
'''Moses''' or '''Móshe''' ('''מֹשֶ×?×”''',
Standard Hebrew '''Móše''',
Tiberian Hebrew '''MÅ?Å¡eh''',
Arabic language Arabic '''موسى''' '''Musa''',
Spanish language Spanish '''Moisés''',
Ethiopic ሙሴ '''Musse''') was a son of
Amram and his wife,
Jochebed, a
Levite. He is known as the legendary
Hebrews Hebrew liberator, leader, lawgiver,
prophet, and historian.
Image:Bacchiacca 002.jpg thumb|right|Moses strikes water from the stone, by Bacchiacca
Moses in the Bible
Image:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 079.jpg thumb|left|Moses with the Tablets, by [[Rembrandt]]
According to the
Tanakh Hebrew Bible, Moses led the
Israelites out of slavery in
Egypt and into the desert, and received the
Torah of Judaism from
God on
Mount Sinai. The Torah contains the life story of Moses and his people until his
death at the age of 120 years, according to Jewish count was in the year 2488, or 1272 BCE. Arising in part from his age, but also because 120 is elsewhere stated as the maximum age for Noah's descendants (Genesis 6:3), "may you live to 120" has become a common blessing among Jews.
Moses's greatest legacy was probably expounding the doctrine of
monotheism, which was not widely accepted at the time, codifying it in
Jewish religion with the 1st
Ten Commandments Commandment, and punishing
polytheism polytheists. He is considered a prophet in
Judaism,
Christianity, and
Islam.
The birth of Moses occurred at a time when the current Egyptian Pharaoh had commanded that all male children born to Hebrew slaves should be killed by drowning in the
Nile river. The Torah leaves the identity of this Pharaoh unstated. But he is believed by some to be
Ramses II; other, earlier pharaohs have also been suggested including a
Hyksos pharaoh or one shortly after the Hyksos had been expelled.
Image:Giovanni Battista Tiepolo 011.jpg thumb|right|The finding of Moses, by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]]
Image:Edwin Long 002.jpg thumb|right|The finding of Moses, by [[Edwin Long]]
{{factual}}
Jochebed, the wife of the Levite Amram, bore a son, and kept him concealed for three months. When she could keep him hidden no longer, rather than deliver him to be killed, she set him adrift on the Nile river in a small craft of bulrushes coated in pitch. The daughter of Pharaoh discovered the baby and adopted him as her son, and named him "Moses" (considered to mean "to draw out"). By Biblical account, Moses' sister Miriam observed the progress of the tiny boat. Miriam then asked Pharaoh's daughter if she would like a Hebrew woman to nurse the baby. Thereafter, Jochebed was employed as the child's nurse, and he grew and was brought to Pharaoh's daughter and became her son.
When Moses reached adulthood, he went one day to see how his brethren, slaves to the Egyptians, fared. Seeing an Egyptian mistreating a Hebrew, he killed the Egyptian and hid his body in the sand, supposing that no one who would be disposed to reveal the matter knew of it. The next day, seeing two Hebrews quarreling, he endeavored to separate them, whereupon the Hebrew who was wronging the other taunted Moses for slaying the Egyptian. Moses soon discovered from a higher source that the affair was known, and that Pharaoh was likely to put him to death for it; he therefore made his escape to the
Sinai peninsula and settled with Hobab, or Jethro, priest of Midian, whose daughter Zipporah he in due time married. There he sojourned forty years, following the occupation of a shepherd, during which time his son
Gershom was born. Moses is also said to have had an
Ethiopian wife, according to Numbers 12:1. (However, the
11th century Talmudic commentator
Rashi stated that this is merely a reference to the beauty of Zipporah.)
One day, as Moses led his flock to
Mount Horeb, he saw a bush burning without being consumed. When he turned aside to look more closely at the marvel, God spoke to him from the bush revealing his name to Moses.
(In the time of Emperor
Constantine I (emperor) Constantine, Mount Horeb was identified with Mount Sinai, but scholars think it was located much farther north.)
God also commissioned him to go to Egypt and deliver his fellow Hebrews from their bondage. He then returned to Egypt. Moses was met on his arrival in Egypt by his elder brother, Aaron, and gained a hearing with his oppressed brethren. It was a more difficult matter, however, to persuade Pharaoh to let the Hebrews depart. This was not accomplished until God sent ten plagues upon the Egyptians. These plagues culminated in the slaying of the Egyptian first-borns whereupon such terror seized the Egyptians that they ordered the Hebrews to leave.
The long procession moved slowly, and found it necessary to encamp three times before passing the Egyptian frontier — some believe at the
Great Bitter Lake, while others propose sites as far south as the northern tip of the
Red Sea. Meanwhile, Pharaoh had a change of heart, and was in pursuit of them with a large army. Shut in between this army and the sea, the Israelites despaired, but God divided the waters so that they passed safely across on dry ground. When the Egyptian army attempted to follow, God permitted the waters to return upon them and drown them.
Following this, according to the last chapters of ''Exodus'', the
Tabernacle was constructed, the priestly law ordained, the plan of encampment arranged both for the Levites and the non-priestly tribes, and the Tabernacle consecrated.
Moses in Jewish thought
There is a wealth of stories and additional information about Moses in the Jewish genre of
rabbinical exegesis known as
Midrash, as well as in the primary works of the Jewish
oral law, the
Mishnah and the
Talmud.
Moses in Christian thought
For
Christianity Christians, Moses -- mentioned more often in the
New Testament than any other
Old Testament figure -- is often a symbol of the contrast between traditional
Judaism and the teachings of
Jesus. New Testament writers often made comparison of Jesus' words and deeds with Moses' in order to explain Jesus' mission. In the book of
Acts of the Apostles Acts, for example, the rejection of Moses by the Jews when they worshipped the
golden calf is likened to the rejection of Jesus, also by the Jews.
Moses also figures into several of Jesus' messages. When he met the
Pharisee Nicodemus at night in the third chapter of
Gospel of John John, he compares Moses' lifting up of the bronze serpent in the wilderness, which any Israelite could look upon and be healed, to his own lifting up (by his death and
resurrection) for the people to look upon and be healed. In the sixth chapter, Jesus responds to the people's claim that Moses provided them ''
manna'' in the wilderness by saying that it was not Moses, but God, who provided. Calling himself the "bread of life", Jesus states that he is now provided to feed God's people.
Moses is also regarded as a symbol of the law, and so he is presented in all three Gospel accounts of the
Transfiguration in
Gospel of Matthew Matthew 17,
Gospel of Mark Mark 9, and
Gospel of Luke Luke 9, respectively.
Moses in Mormon thought
Members of the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints acknowledge Moses as a prophet and as the great law-giver for Israel.
Latter-Day Saints believe that in
1836 Moses appeared to
Joseph Smith, Jr. at the
Kirtland Temple in
Kirtland, Ohio and gave him the keys for the gathering of the Twelve Tribes of Israel.
Moses in Islamic thought
{{main|Musa (prophet)}}
In the
Qur'an, the holy book of Islam, the life of Moses (''Musa'') is narrated and recounted more than any other prophet recognized in Islam. Although the Qur'an reiterates what was available and currently present in Jewish scripture, many differences can be found with many details introduced.
Moses in the Bahá'à Faith
Bahá'Ãs believe that Moses was a "
Manifestation of God," or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Moses shares an exalted station with
Abraham,
Krishna,
Buddha,
Zoroaster,
Jesus,
Muhammad,
the Báb, and the founder of the
Bahá'à Faith,
Bahá'u'lláh. Bahá'à scripture often refers to Moses using the traditional Islamic designation "He who conversed with God."
Textual origin of the Torah
It has been traditionally assumed that Moses received from God and subsequently transcribed all, or almost all, of the
Torah, and this is still the view of most
Christianity Christians and most of
Orthodox Judaism. However, many liberal scholars, following the practice of
higher criticism have become convinced that this work, in the form we know it today, was edited together from several earlier sources. This idea is discussed in the entry on the
documentary hypothesis.
Moses in history
Skeptical historians, generally called
Biblical minimalism "Biblical minimalists", suggest that Moses never actually existed as a historical figure, and that
the Exodus is mythical. On the other hand, historical records are so fragmentary that extra-biblical records of Moses may have been long lost. For example, if
the Exodus occurred during the end of the
Hyksos era in Egypt (
16th century BC), as some scholars believe, then any Hyksos records of Moses would have been deliberately destroyed by victorious Egyptians as they drove the Hyksos out of Egypt. Destruction of unfavorable records by unsympathetic Pharaohs, and even mass obliteration of cartouches from monuments, is known to have occurred at several epochs in Ancient Egyptian history.
Known extra-biblical references to Moses date from many centuries after his supposed lifetime. Whether or not they are reliant on Jewish tradition or also have access to additional sources is unknown.
Polyhistor,
Flavius Josephus,
Philo, and
Manetho refer to him, as do others. Also, of course, there are the above-mentioned stories in the Mishna and Qur'an. See the article on
The Bible and history. In the
3rd century BC, Manetho, a
Hellenistic Egyptian chronicler and priest, alleged that Moses was not a Jew, but an Egyptian renegade priest, called
Osarseph, and portrayed the Exodus as the expulsion of a leper colony. A similar assertion is made by the Roman historian
Tacitus in the Book 5 of his ''Histories''.
Even if Moses is accepted as a historical figure, various aspects of the Biblical tale can be re-interpreted. Manetho's claim that Moses was an Egyptian is quite plausible. It has been suggested that he may have been an Egyptian nobleman or prince influenced by the religion of
Aten (see
Freud's theory below), or simply sympathetic to Hebrew culture. Moses is an Egyptian name meaning "son" and was often used in pharaohs' names (as in Tut-moses). The Hebrews might have fabricated the "bulrushes" story along the lines of the tales of
Sargon of
Akkad (
Mesopotamian) or
Oedipus (
Greece Greek) to legitimize his position. On the other hand, infants were sometimes abandoned by the lower classes in ancient times, and "Moshe" is a Hebrew word (meaning "one who draws water").
Dating the Exodus has also proved challenging. Views include:
*it occurred around the end of the
Hyksos era, as expressed above;
*it occurred about
1420s BC 1420 BC, since records exist of "
Habiru" invasions of
Canaan forty years later - this theory fits well the modern idea that the historical persona of Moses was the early
15th century BC Crown Prince of Egypt called
Ramose, who also disappeared from Egyptian records around the time of Queen
Hatshepsut's death;{{fact}}
*or it occurred during the
13th century BC, as the pharaoh during most of that time,
Rameses II, is commonly considered to be a pharaoh with whom Moses squabbled - either as the 'Pharaoh of the Exodus' himself, or the preceding 'Pharaoh of the Oppression' who is said to have commissioned the Hebrews to "(build) for Pharaoh treasure cities,
Pithom and
Raamses." These cities are known to have been built under both
Seti I and Rameses II, possibly making his successor
Merneptah 'Pharaoh of the Exodus.' This is considered plausible by those who view the famed
Merneptah Stele stele of Merneptah's 5th year (ca.
1208 BC), claiming that "Israel is wasted, bare of seed", as propaganda covering up his own loss of an army in the sea.
*A more recent and controversial view places Moses as a noble in the court of the Pharaoh
Akhenaten (See below). Many scholars from
Sigmund Freud to
Joseph Campbell suggest that Moses may have fled Egypt after Akhenaten's death (ca.
1358 BC) when much of the pharaoh's monotheistic reforms were being violently reversed. The principal ideas behind this theory are: the monotheistic religion of Akhenaten being a possible predecessor to Moses' monotheism, and a contemporaneous collection of "
Amarna Letters" written by nobles to Akhenaten (
Amarna was Akhenaten's capital city) which describe raiding bands of "
Habiru" attacking the Egyptian territories in
Mesopotamia. (''Transformations of Myth Through Time'',
Joseph Campbell, p. 87-90, Harper & Row)
Finally, there is the challenge of interpreting the many
miracles in the Moses story. Most of them are simply dismissed by scholars as legends, but some can be explained. For example, some of the plagues strongly resemble exaggerated versions of actual pestilences common in the ancient world (see
Ten plagues The Ten Plagues), the famous Red Sea crossing may have been a marsh (the "Reed Sea") through which the Egyptian chariots could not penetrate, the ''manna'' which God bestowed on the hungry Israelites may have been the secretion of the
Amaranthaceae hammada shrub, and the swallowing of
Korah (''Numbers'' 16) could have been an earthquake.
There is also a
psychoanalysis psychoanalytical interpretation of Moses' life, put forward by
Sigmund Freud in his last book, ''
Moses and Monotheism,'' in
1937. Freud postulated that Moses was an Egyptian nobleman who adhered to the monotheism of
Akhenaten. Freud also believed that Moses was murdered in the wilderness, producing a collective sense of patricidal guilt which has been at the heart of Judaism ever since. "Judaism had been a religion of the father, Christianity became a religion of the son," he wrote. A recent alternative suggestion resulting from interpreting Biblical and
Egyptian history (by Egyptologist Ahmed Osman) proposes that Moses and Akhenaten are the same person (''Moses and Akhenaten'', Dec. 2002). Opponents of this view point to the fact that the religion of the Torah seems very different to
Atenism in everything except the central feature of devotion to a single god.
Several professors of
archaeology claim that many stories in the
Old Testament, including important chronicles about Moses,
Solomon, and others, were actually made up for the first time by scribes hired by King
Josiah (
7th century BC) in order to rationalize monotheistic belief in
Yahweh; and that no surviving written records from Egypt,
Assyria, etc., refer to the stories of the Bible or its main characters before
650 BC. Such claims are detailed in ''Who Were the Early Israelites?'' by William G. Dever (William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, MI, 2003). Another such book by Neil A. Silberman and colleagues is ''The Bible Unearthed'' (Simon and Schuster, New York, 2001).
Traditionalists point out that many of the details of the
Pentateuch are consistent with the time period, such as the price of a slave (30
shekels as opposed to around 60 at the time of the
Babylonian captivity), the practice of blood covenants and the discovery of what appear to be chariot wheels on the bottom of the
Red Sea.
Skeptics view most of these as inconclusive or otherwise consequential.
Ethical dilemmas
If the Bible gives an accurate description of Moses' views, then by "modern standards" some of his commands might amount to calls for
murder,
war crimes or
slavery. For instance, according to ''Numbers'' 31:15-18, he called for the massacre of boys and the enslavement of female children to Israelite veterans of the
Midian war ("kill every male among the little ones, and kill every woman that hath known man by lying with him. But all the little girls among the women, that have not known a man by lying with him, keep alive for yourselves").
For those Jews who practice Judaism, as well as some Christians, the five books of Moses are holy books revealed by God, and the message within them is eternal. For
Unitarian Universalists, and other liberal movements, it is regarded as a sacred text, but not as a divinely revealed work. Adherents of all these faiths understand the serious ethical dilemmas that arise when reading certain parts of the Bible. As such, Jews and Christians have developed a number of responses to understanding such texts. There are two basic positions that one can assume when approaching such texts, both of which offer a variety of responses.
One using the traditional approach was originally called a
fundamentalist. The fundamentalist term has evolved to reflect other meanings however, including that of "a person with an unthinking devotion to an agenda without regard to reason." The traditional approach assumes that Biblical characters, the situations described, and the words said took place as the Bible says. The Bible is believed to be divinely revealed truth, unique among historical texts. This view does not exempt humans from a carefully reasoned examination of the scriptures, however, and in fact requires it. Translation, historical context and assumptions, and the definition and applicability of terms used in the original text not only affect what the Bible "says," they define it.
A fundamentalist may believe there is one valid source (organization, person, etc.) for the interpretation of the "truths" of the Bible. The traditional Christian view implies however that a "literal interpretation of the Bible" is an
oxymoron. The important characteristic of the traditional Christian view comes from the Bible itself--that scripture is useful in the context of ''personal'' applicability ([http://bible.gospelcom.net/cgi-bin/bible?passage=2TIM+3:16-17&language=english&version=NIV&showfn=on&showxref=on ''2 Timothy'' 3:16-17]). Thus, blind adherence to an organization's ''or'' one's own static interpretation is rejected in this view, as devotion to the "living" God prohibits devotion to a static ideology. The traditional Christian view implies that the Bible is unique among texts in its truthful nature (lack of falsehood), while simultaneously implying that truth is meaningful only in living application through a personal relationship to God - attempting to adhere to a static set of moral laws is believed to lead to death (see, ie, [http://bible.gospelcom.net/cgi-bin/bible?passage=ROM+7&language=english&version=NIV&showfn=on&showxref=on ''Romans'' 7]). The traditional Christian believes one arrives at this view by "answering the call of God," who speaks to all mankind through
revelation, where revelation is never contradictory and consists of both the Bible and experience gained through life. When faced with an ethical dilemma in Moses's writings, a traditional Christian might employ critical examination of available historical context, critical examination of how the writing should be translated, and critical examination of his or her understanding of God's nature to determine what the passage means, all the while believing the Bible contains no falsehood. For an example of this process applied to the Midian war, see this exploration of Moses's writing from a traditional Christian point of view: [http://www.rationalchristianity.net/numbers31.html Moses and the Midianites]. Moses, in the traditional Christian view, was considered a good man not because of his ethics, but because of his trust in God. In this view, only Jesus was a good man for what he did, the rest of mankind (including Moses and his contemporaries) can only become good by believing and trusting God. Traditional Christianity believes that one who honestly looks for God will find God, as this is stated in the Bible, and that honest, rational exploration yields the Bible as the most rational explanation for human experience.
Liberal Christianity Liberal Christian denominations and congregations reject this view. They hold that the texts of the Bible were edited together from a number of sources over a long period of time, and the authorship and timing of the Torah is debated. In this view, the situations described in the Bible do not necessarily represent divinely inspired truth but instead represent the views of the editors of the Bible.
The Horned Moses
Image:MichaelangeloMoses20020315.jpg thumb|Moses with horns, by [[Michaelangelo ]]
Exodus 34:29-35 tells that after meeting with God the skin of Moses' face became radiant, frightening the Israelites and leading Moses to wear a veil.
Jonathan Kirsch, in his book ''Moses: A Life'', thought that, since he subsequently had to wear a veil to hide it, Moses' face was disfigured by a sort of "divine radiation burn".
This story has led to one longstanding tradition that Moses grew
horn (anatomy) horns. This is derived from a mistranslation of the Hebrew phrase "karnu panav" ×§×¨× ×• ×¤× ×™×•. The root קרן may be read as either "horn" or "ray", as in "ray of light". "Panav" ×¤× ×™×• translates as "his face".
If interpreted correctly those two words form an expression which means that he was enlightened, and many
rabbinical studies explain that the knowledge that was revealed to him made his face metaphorically shine with enlightenment, and not that it suddenly sported a pair of horns.
The
Septuagint properly translates the Hebrew word קרן as δεδοξασται, 'was glorified', but
Jerome translated it as ''cornuta'', 'horned', and it was the latter image that became the more popular. This tradition survived from the first centuries AD well into the
Renaissance. Many artists, including
Michelangelo in
Michelangelo's Moses a famed sculpture, depicted Moses with horns.
Moses in popular media
* Moses appears as the central character in the
1956 Cecil B. DeMille movie, ''
The Ten Commandments (1956 movie) The Ten Commandments''. He is played by
Charlton Heston.
* Moses appears as the central character as well in the
1998 Dreamworks Pictures animated movie, ''
The Prince of Egypt.'' He is voiced by
Val Kilmer.
*In the play 'Abridged Africa' by English playwright
Thomas Wooltorton the main character Ebert ironically gives a pea he finds floating in the Nile river the name Moses.
See also
{{commonscat|Moses}}
*
The Exodus
*
Aaron
*
Joshua
*
Biblical figures
*
List of founders of major religions
*
Passage of Red Sea
*
Code of Hammurabi
*
Manu Smriti
*
Ipuwer Papyrus
External links
-
"Difficult Texts" by Bonna Devora Haberman. How do we study difficult Jewish texts without apologizing for, justifying, or historicizing them?
-
Unitarian Universalist approach to reading the Bible
-
Prof. E.Anati: Archaeological discoveries at Har Karkom
-
by Richard Darlow, puts forward the idea that Moses was Prince Ramose
-
BBC: Presents a theory of a volcanic eruption causing phenomena similar to those described in Exodus
-
Ahmed Osman: Providing evidence that Akhenaten and Moses are the same person
Further reading
* Ahmed Osman, ''Moses and Akhenaten. The Secret History of Egypt at the Time of the Exodus'', (December 2002, Inner Traditions International, Limited) ISBN 1591430046
For further scripture on the transfiguration of Moses see
CORINTHIANS
[CHAPTER 3:7]http://scriptures.lds.org/2_cor/3
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=— | title=
Exodus Leader of the Children of Israel | after=
Joshua | years= }}
{{end box}}
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