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President
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'''President''' is a
title held by many leaders of organizations, companies, universities, and countries. Etymologically, a "president" is one who presides, who sits in leadership (from
Latin ''prae-'' "before" + ''sedere'' "to sit"; just as
Praeses). Originally, the term referred to the presiding officer of a ceremony or meeting (i.e.
chairman); but today it most commonly refers to an official with
executive (government) executive powers.
Among other things, '''President''' today is a common title for the
head of state of most
republics, whether popularly
elected, chosen by the
legislature or a special
electoral college. It is also often adopted by
dictators.
'''The bulk of this article is dedicated to this usage by heads of state. For more on other kinds of presidents, see
#Non-governmental presidents Non-Governmental Presidents, below. For more on the usage of term "president", see
President (history of the term).'''
Image:Abraham Lincoln head on shoulders photo portrait.jpg Abraham_Lincoln.html" title="Meaning of right right|thumb|[[Abraham Lincoln,
16th President of the United States (1861-1865).html" title="Meaning of thumb|[[Abraham Lincoln">right|thumb|[[Abraham Lincoln,
16th President of the United States (1861-1865)">thumb|[[Abraham Lincoln">right|thumb|[[Abraham Lincoln,
16th President of the United States (1861-1865)
The first European president was the
President of France, a post created in the
Second French Republic Second Republic of
1848. (The
First French Republic First Republic had begun with no separate executive, then established five
French Directory Directors, and finally echoed the ancient
Roman Republic by appointing three
consuls at its head.) The first internationally recognized president was the
President of the United States of America during the American revolution, by nations such as France. The first president of an internationally recognized African state was the
President of Liberia in
1848.
Today, most countries have a President as Head of State.
Presidents in democratic countries and international organizations
Presidential systems
In states with what is called a
Presidential system of
government, the President is also the
head of government, as well as the
head of state. Countries with such a system include the
United States and most nations in
Latin America. In this system the office of President is very powerful, both in practice and theory. In the United States, the President is ''indirectly'' elected by the
U.S. Electoral College made up of electors chosen by voters in the presidential election. In most U.S. states, each elector is committed to voting for a specified candidate determined by the popular vote in each state, so that the people, in voting for each elector, is in effect voting for the candidate. However, in several close U.S. elections (notably
U.S. presidential election, 1876 1876,
U.S. presidential election, 1888 1888,
U.S. presidential election, 2000 2000), while one candidate received the most popular votes, another candidate managed to win more electoral votes in the Electoral College and so won the presidency.
Parliamentary systems
Other states have what is called a
parliamentary system of government, in which the president is only head of state, and the
prime minister is the head of government. Countries with such systems include
Finland,
Germany,
India,
Republic of Ireland Ireland,
Israel,
Italy and
Singapore, as well as
Portugal (which has a slightly different system).
Under such a system, executive authority is often vested in the president, with the government governing in his or her name, producing phrases such as "His/Her Excellency's Government" in some formal state documentation. However a president may also possess some
reserve powers or powers which can be exercised by the president without formal advice (ie, binding instruction) from 'His' or 'Her' Governnment, i.e. the president's role in a parliamentary system is very similar to that of a
monarch in
Constitutional monarchy constitutional monarchies.
Usually in parliamentary systems, the president's role is primarily ceremonial. However, due to the combination of constitutionally established "reserve powers,"
Protocol (diplomacy) protocol (which may require them to formally chair cabinet meetings and/or have access to all cabinet memoranda), and his or her role as the person in whose name executive authority is vested, often gives the president a degree of ''informal'' influence not often publicly realised.
An example of this influence is the following:
between 1870 and 1940, and again from 1945 to 1958, France operated a classic parliamentary system of government, with power in a cabinet chosen by the
National Assembly, and a largely, though not totally, symbolic president; in 1877, President
Patrice Mac-Mahon, duc de Magenta Mac-Mahon showed that his office was constitutionally significant when he dismissed the then prime minister before calling new elections, in the hope of achieving a royalist majority to restore the monarchy (the plan failed).
= "President of Government" in parliamentary systems
=
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President of the Government of Spain (1982-1996).html" title="Meaning of right|[[Felipe González">thumb|right|[[Felipe González,
President of the Government of Spain (1982-1996)">right|[[Felipe González">thumb|right|[[Felipe González,
President of the Government of Spain (1982-1996)
Some countries with parliamentary systems use the term 'president' in connection with the head of parliamentary government, often as
President of the Government,
President of the Council of Ministers or
President of the Executive Council.
However, such an official is explicitly not the president of the ''country''. Rather, he or she is called a
president (history of the term) president in an older sense of the word to denote the fact that he or she heads the ''
cabinet''. A separate
head of state generally exists in their country that instead serves as the president or monarch of the country.
Thus, such officials are really
premiers, and to avoid confusion are often described simply as '
prime minister' when being mentioned internationally.
There are several examples for this kind of presidency:
* Under the French
French Third Republic Third and the
French Fourth Republic Fourth Republics, the "President of the Council" (of ministers) was the head of government, with the President of the Republic a largely symbolic figurehead.
* The prime minister of the
Irish Free State from 1922 to 1937 was titled
President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State. At the same time, the Irish Free State was a constitutional monarchy with a reigning monarch, the
Monarchy in the Irish Free State King of Ireland, as well as a resident
Governor-General of the Irish Free State Governor-General carrying out many head of state functions.
* The
Prime Minister of Spain is officially referred to as the President of the Government of Spain, and informally known as the "President". Spain is also a kingdom with a reigning
King of Spain.
* The official title of the
Prime Minister of Serbia is Chairman of the Government, while the country has a
President of Serbia.
Semi-presidential systems
Image:Charles_de_Gaulle.jpg Charles_de Gaulle.html" title="Meaning of thumb thumb|[[Charles de Gaulle,
President of France President of the Fifth French Republic (1958-1969), wearing the
Legion of Honour as grand-master of the order..html" title="Meaning of [[Charles de Gaulle">thumb|[[Charles de Gaulle,
President of France President of the Fifth French Republic (1958-1969), wearing the
Legion of Honour as grand-master of the order.">[[Charles de Gaulle">thumb|[[Charles de Gaulle,
President of France President of the Fifth French Republic (1958-1969), wearing the
Legion of Honour as grand-master of the order.
A third system is the
semi-presidential system, also known as the
France French system, in which like the Parliamentary system there is both a President and a Prime Minister, but unlike the Parliamentary system the President may have significant day-to-day power. When his party controls the majority of seats in the National Assembly the president can operate closely with the parliament and prime minister, and work towards a common agenda. When the National Assembly is controlled by opponents of the President however, the president can find himself marginalized with the opposition party prime minister exercising most of the power. Though the prime minister remains an appointee of the president, the president must obey the rules of parliament, and select a leader from the house's majority holding party. Thus, sometimes the president and PM can be allies, sometimes bitter rivals. This situation is known as
cohabitation (government) cohabitation. The French semi-presidential system, which can be considered a hybrid between the first two, was developed at the beginning of the
French Fifth Republic Fifth Republic by
Charles de Gaulle. It is used (of course) in
France,
Russia,
Sri Lanka and several other post-colonial countries which have emulated the French model.
Collective Presidency
Only a tiny minority of modern republics do not have a head of state; examples include:
*
Switzerland, where the headship of state is collectively vested in the seven-member
Swiss Federal Council despite the fact the system includes a
President of the Swiss Confederation President of the Confederation. The President is a member of the Federal Council elected by the
Federal Assembly of Switzerland Federal Assembly (the Swiss
Parliament) for a year (
constitutional convention (political custom) constitutional convention mandates that the post rotates every
New Year's Day); and the President is merely ''
primus inter pares''. Nevertheless, on the international stage he or she is treated as head of state.
Letter of Credence Letters of Credence appointing ambassadors are formally addressed to him or her by other heads of state.
*
Bosnia and Herzegovina, which has a three-member
Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina Presidency, each of which are elected by a different
Nations of Bosnia and Herzegovina constituent nation. The position of the President of the Presidency rotates between the three members.
*
San Marino, which has two
List of Captains Regent of San Marino Captains Regent elected by the
Great and General Council.
Presidents in dictatorships
In
dictatorships, the title is frequently taken by self-appointed and/or military-backed leaders. Such is the case in many African states;
Idi Amin in
Uganda, for example. In some communist states, the head of the Communist party was also given the presidency, such as
Fidel Castro in
Cuba and
Mikhail Gorbachev in the
Soviet Union. On other occasions in the Soviet Union, the real power was exercised by the General Secretary of the Communist Party, with some local notable holding the presidency.
President for Life is a title assumed by some
dictators to ensure that their authority or legitimacy is never questioned.
The first well-known incident of a leader extending his term indefinitely was Roman dictator
Julius Caesar, who made himself "
Roman dictator Perpetual Dictator" (commonly mistranslated as 'Dictator-for-life') in
45 BC. His actions would later be mimicked by the French leader
Napoleon Bonaparte who was appointed "First Consul for life" in
1802.
Ironically, most leaders who proclaim themselves President for Life do not in fact successfully serve a life term. Even so presidents like
Alexandre Sabès dit Pétion,
Rafael Carrera,
Josip Broz Tito and
François Duvalier died in office.
The only living officially proclaimed president for life is
Saparmurat Niyazov of
Turkmenistan.
Many others do not proclaim it officially "''for life''" even if it is evident that they are, like
Fidel Castro of Cuba, or
Nicolae CeauÅŸescu of
Romania, who ruled until his
execution (see
Romanian revolution)
Several presidents have ruled until their
death in
democracy democratic countries, but they have not actually been made and/or proclaimed themselves as President for Life. For instance,
Makarios III Archbishop President Makarios became
president of Cyprus late in his life (in
1960) and ruled until his
death in
1977, having successfully won
election re-election several times.
Presidential symbols
As the country's head of state, in most countries the president is entitled to certain symbolic honors, as well as luxury perks that come with the office. For example, most of the world's presidents have a special residence; often a lavish mansion or palace. The President of the United States for example resides in the famous
White House.
As well as an official residence, in some nations the Presidency brings with it certain symbols of office, such as an official uniform, decorations, or other accessories. Perhaps the most common presidential symbol are the
presidential sashes worn by the presidents of
Latin America. In these countries, the sash is a symbol of the presidency's continuity, and presenting the sash to the new president is a key part of the
inauguration ceremony.
Presidential chronologies of existing, recognized countries
*
List of Presidents of the European Commission European Commission
*
Leaders of post-Soviet independent states
Specific information
*
President of Argentina
*
President of Austria
*
President of the People's Republic of China
*
President of the Republic of China
*
List of Presidents of Fiji President of Fiji
*
President of Finland
*
President of France
*
President of Germany
*
President of India
*
President of Ireland
*
President of Israel
*
President of Malta
*
President of Mexico
*
President of Pakistan
*
List of Presidents of Peru President of Peru
*
President of the Philippines
*
President of the Republic of Poland
*
President of Serbia
*
President of Serbia and Montenegro
*
President of Switzerland
*
List of Presidents of Trinidad and Tobago President of Trinidad and Tobago
*
President of the United States
International presidentship
The
European Union is governed in part by the
Presidency of the Council of the European Union, a rotating post held by the member states of the European Union. In the past this has been one individual state presiding for a six-month period; as of
2007 it will be three states sharing the presidency during their overlapping 18-month terms.
There is also a
President of the European Commission, who is appointed, like his portfolio Commissioners, for a whole legislature.
Sub-national presidents
President can also by the title of the chief executive at a lower administrative level, such as
Parish President in the Louisiana equivalent of a county.
Non-governmental presidents
''President'' is also used as a title in some non-governmental organizations.
The head of a university or non-profit corporation, particularly in the United States of America, is often known as president. In
university systems with multiple independent campuses, the relationship between the roles of
University President president and
chancellor can become quite complicated. President is also a title in many corporations. In some cases the president acts as
chief operating officer under the direction of the
chief executive officer.
In British constitutional practice, the chairman of an
Executive Council, acting in such a capacity, is known as a
President of the Executive Council. Usually this person is the
Governor but is not always so.
image:Hinckley_message.jpg Gordon_B. Hinckley.html" title="Meaning of right right|thumb|180px|[[Gordon B. Hinckley, President of the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints..html" title="Meaning of thumb|180px|[[Gordon B. Hinckley">right|thumb|180px|[[Gordon B. Hinckley, President of the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.">thumb|180px|[[Gordon B. Hinckley">right|thumb|180px|[[Gordon B. Hinckley, President of the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
In
France French legal terminology, the president of a court consisting of multiple
judges is the foremost judge; he chairs the meeting of the court and directs the debates (and this thus addressed as "Mr President", ''Monsieur le Président'', or appropriate feminine forms). In general, a court comprises several chambers, each with its own president; thus the most senior of these is called the "first president" (as in: "the First President of the
Court of Cassation is the most senior judge in France").
Many other organizations, clubs, and committees, both political and non-political are led by Presidents as well. Examples can vary from the President of a
political party, to the president of a
chamber of commerce, to the President of a
students' union and even the president of a
high school chess club.
In the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the head of the church is known as the
President of the Church (Mormonism) President. Together with his two counselors, they are known as the
First Presidency. Though the president is to be chosen solely by a unanimous decision by the
Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, the entire body of the church votes to sustain the President in this
Calling (Mormonism) calling. Any non-sustaining votes are investigated to determine if there is just cause against the president. This pattern is repeated throughout the church in
Quorum (Mormonism) quorums and in other bodies such as the
Relief Society and Young Women classes, each of which is led by a president.
Sources and Additional reading
(incomplete)
*The powers, functions and functioning of presidents were reviewed by six international experts for Australia's
Republic Advisory Committee in 1993. Reports by among others Professor
Klaus Von Beyme (on Germany),
A.G Noorani (on India),
Jim Duffy (author) Jim Duffy (on Ireland) and Sir
Ellis Clarke (on Trinidad and Tobago) outline the role of various presidencies. The full report is called ''An Australian Republic: The Options - The Appendices'' (ISBN 0644325895)
See also
*
List of democracy and elections-related topics
*
CEOs of major corporations
*
Head of state
*
Governor-General
*
Monarch
*
Prime Minister
*
List of national leaders
*
Heads of state timeline
*
Federal World Government
*
Presidents' Day
