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Protestantism
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{{christianity}}
'''Protestantism''' is one of three primary branches of
Christianity. The term "Protestant" represents a diverse range of theological and social perspectives, denominations, individuals, and related organizations. While no particular belief or practice can be said to define this branch of Christianity, those denominations considered to be well within the realm of Protestantism all have firm roots in the Protestant
Reformation in Europe during the sixteenth century.
See Also:
Roman Catholicism and
Orthodox Christianity.
Definition and origins
{{Main|Protestant Reformation}}
Initially, the term ''protestant'' meant, "to be a witness" rather than, "to be against " as the current popular interpretation of the word seems to imply. The Latin prefix ''pro'' is interpreted as "for". The Latin adjective ''protestans'' refers to a person who gives public testimony, or who proves or demonstrates. In the early years of the Reformation, the term '''Protestant''' applied to a group of princes and imperial cities who "protested" the decision by the
1529 Diet of Speyer to reverse course, and enforce the
1521 Edict of Worms. The
1521 edict forbade
Lutheranism Lutheran teachings within the
Holy Roman Empire. The
1526 session of the
Diet (assembly) Diet had agreed to toleration of Lutheran teachings (on the basis of ''
Cuius regio, eius religio)'' until a
Ecumenical council General Council could be held to settle the question. However, by
1529, the Roman Catholic authorities felt they had gathered enough power to end toleration without waiting for an official pronouncement from any council.
In a broader sense of the word, '''Protestant''' came to be used as the collective name for those individuals and churches who advocated a formal separation from the Roman Catholic Church. The roots of this movement are typically accredited to
Martin Luther and his
95 Theses. However, following Luther's posting of the 95 Theses at Wittenburg, significant contributions to the Protestant cause were made by reformers like
John Calvin,
Zwingli,
Thomas Cranmer, and
John Knox.
In England and other regions of the United Kingdom, the word "Protestant" is typically used to refer to the established
Church of England. Protestants who are not members of the Church of England are commonly called
non-conformists. In
German language German-speaking and
Scandinavian countries, the word "Protestant" still refers specifically to national
Lutheran churches (in contrast to
Reformed churches), while the common designation for all churches originating from the Reformation is "
Evangelicalism Evangelical" - a word that is used to refer to specifically conservative Protestants in the United States. Some Western, non-Catholic, groups are labeled as Protestant (such as the
Religious Society of Friends), despite the reality that they recognize no historical connection to Luther, Calvin, or the Roman Catholic Church.
As an intellectual movement, Protestantism grew out of the Renaissance and West European universities, attracting some learned intellectuals, as well as politicians, professionals, skilled tradesmen, and artisans. The new technology of the
printing press allowed Protestant ideas to spread rapidly, as well as aiding in the dissemination of translations of the Christian
Bible in native tongues. Nascent Protestant social ideals of liberty of conscience and individual freedom, were formed through continuous confrontation with the authority of the Bishop of Rome, and the hierarchy of the Catholic priesthood. The Protestant movement away from the constraints of tradition, toward greater emphasis on individual conscience, anticipated later developments of democratization, and the so-called "
Age of Enlightenment Enlightenment" of later centuries.
Basic theological tenets of the Reformation
During the Reformation, several Latin slogans emerged, illustrating the Reformers' concern that the authorities of the Church had distorted the message of justification before God, and salvation in Jesus Christ. The Reformers believed it was necessary to return to the simplicity of the Gospel in terms of the issues designated by these slogans.
The ''Solas''
{{main|Five solas}}
There were five ''Solas'', four discussed here. The fifth, ''
Soli deo gloria'' (to God alone the glory), was intended to underlie the other four. These slogans essentially became rallying cries to challenge the problems the Reformers believed they had identified, which are:
* ''
Solus Christus'': ''Christ alone''.
:The Protestants characterized the dogma concerning the Pope as Christ's representative head of the Church on earth, the concept of meritorious works, and the Catholic idea of a treasury of the merits of saints, as a denial that Christ is the ''only'' mediator between
God and man.
* ''
Sola scriptura'': ''Scripture alone''.
:Protestants believed that the Roman Catholic church obscured the teaching of the
Bible, and undermined its authority, by following ''Tradition'', regardless of whether it over-ruled or added to the doctrines of Scripture.
* ''
Sola fide'': ''Faith alone''.
:The Protestants characterized the Roman Catholic concept of meritorious works, of penance and indulgences,
Mass_(liturgy) masses for the dead, the treasury of the merits of
saint saints and martyrs, a ministering priesthood who hears confessions, and
purgatory, as reliance upon other means for justification, in addition to faith in
Jesus and his work on the cross.
* ''
Sola gratia'': ''Grace alone''.
:The Roman Catholic view of the means of salvation was believed by the Protestants to be a mixture of reliance upon the grace of God, and confidence in the merits of one's own works, performed in love. The Reformers posited that salvation is entirely comprehended in God's gifts, (i.e. God's act of free grace) dispensed by the Holy Spirit according to the redemptive work of Jesus Christ alone. Consequently, they argued that a sinner is not accepted by God on account of the change wrought in the believer by God's grace, and that the believer is accepted without any regard for the merit of his works - for no one deserves salvation.
On the theological front, the Protestant movement began to coalesce into several distinct branches in the mid-to-late sixteenth century. One of the central points of divergence was controversy over the Lord's Supper.
The Real Presence in the Lord's Supper
{{main articles|
Real Presence and
Lord's Supper}}
Although most early Protestants generally rejected the Roman Catholic
dogma of
transubstantiation, which teaches that the bread and wine used in the sacrificial rite of the Mass is transformed into the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ (see
Eucharist), with the subsequent logic that the elements (being Christ) become worthy of worship, they disagreed with one another concerning the manner in which Christ ''is'' present in Holy Communion.
*Lutherans hold to an understanding closest to that of
Real Presence (often characterized by critics by the term, "
consubstantiation"), which affirms the true presence of Christ "in, with, and under" the bread and wine. Lutherans point to Jesus' statement, "This '''IS''' my body", while refusing to delve past Christ's words in order to describe just how this takes place. Lutheran teaching does, however, insist that Christ is present physically, rather than in a purely "spiritual" sense.
*Reformed teaching concerning the Lord's Supper ranges along the continuum from
John Calvin Calvin to
Zwingli. The Reformed closest to Calvin emphasize the ''real presence'', or ''sacramental presence'', of Christ, saying that the sacrament is a means of saving grace through which the believer actually partakes of Christ, "but not in a carnal manner". Zwinglians deny that Christ makes himself present to the believer through the elements of the
sacrament, but affirm that Christ is united to the believer through the faith toward which the supper is an aid (a view referred to somewhat derisively as ''memorialism'').
*A Protestant holding a popular simplification of the Zwinglian view, without concern for theological intricacies as hinted at above, may see the Lord's Supper merely as a symbol of the shared faith of the participants, a commemoration of the facts of the crucifixion, and a reminder of their standing together as the Body of Christ.
*
Anglicans (members of the Church of England, the
Episcopal Church in the USA, and other Protestant churches that recognize the
Archbishop of Canterbury as their spirtitual leader) recognize Christ's presence in the Eucharist in a variety of individual ways ranging from acceptance of the Catholic doctrine of transsubstantiation to the Zwinglian understanding of a symbolic memorial. The 29th of the
39 Articles teaches that Christ is present after a spiritual manner although the majority of mainline Anglicans would fall somewhere in the middle of the afore-mentioned positions.
In Protestant theology, as the bread shares identity with Christ (which he calls, "my body"), in an analogous way, the Church shares identity with Him (and also is called "the Body of Christ"). Thus, controversies over the Lord's Supper only initially seem to be about the nature of bread and wine, but are ultimately about the nature of salvation, and therefore secondarily about the nature of the Church. And, indirectly, about the nature of Christ.
Authority
{{Section-stub}}
''See the articles
Laity Lay,
Holy orders Ordained and
Priesthood of all believers''
=Authority in the Church
=
Many Protestant churches practice similar rituals to
Catholicism—chiefly
baptism,
Eucharist communion, and
matrimony—frequently varying or de-formalizing the rites (although this is not the case in some Lutheran and Anglican parishes).
=Understanding of secular authority
=
*Lutheran -
doctrine of the two kingdoms
*Reformed
*Anglican
*Radical -
Anabaptist and peace churches
=The Kingdom of God
=
{{Main|Kingdom of God}}
Later development
{{Section-stub}}
Protestants can be differentiated according to how they have been influenced by important movements since the magisterial Reformation and the Puritan Reformation in England. Some of these movements have a common lineage, sometimes directly spawning later movements in the same groups.
Pietism 17th Century - Methodist movement 18th century
{{main articles|
Pietism and
Methodism}}
The German
Pietism Pietist movement, together with the influence of the
Puritan Reformation in England in the 17th century, were important influences upon
John Wesley and Methodism, as well as through smaller, new groups such as the
Religious Society of Friends ("Quakers") and the Moravian Brotherhood from Germany.
The practice of a spiritual life, typically combined with social engagement, predominates in classical Pietism, which was a protest against the doctrine-centeredness ''Protestant Orthodoxy'' of the times, in favor of depth of religious experience. Many of the more conservative Methodists went on to form the
Holiness movement, which emphasized a rigorous experience of holiness in practical, daily life.
Evangelicalism 18th Century
{{main|Evangelicalism}}
Beginning at the end of 18th century, several international revivals of Pietism (such as the
Great Awakening and the
Second Great Awakening), took place across denominational lines, which are referred to generally as the Evangelical movement. The chief emphases of this movement were individual conversion, personal piety and Bible study,
public morality often including
Temperance and
Abolitionism, de-emphasis of formalism in worship and in doctrine, a broadened role for laity (including women) in worship, evangelism and teaching, and cooperation in evangelism across denominational lines.
Pentecostalism 20th Century
{{main|Pentecostalism}}
Pentecostalism, as a movement, began in the United States early in the
20th century, starting especially within the Holiness movement. Seeking a return to the operation of New Testament gifts of the Holy Spirit, speaking in tongues as evidence of the "baptism of the Holy Ghost" became the leading feature. Divine healing and miracles were also emphasized. Pentecostalism swept through much of the Holiness movement, and eventually spawned hundreds of new denominations in the United States. A later
charismatic "charismatic" movement also stressed the gifts of the Spirit, but often operated within existing denominations, rather than by coming out of them.
Modernism 20th Century
{{main articles|
Liberal Christianity and
Modernist Christianity}}
{{Section-stub}}
Modernism, or Liberalism, does not constitute a rigorous and well-defined school of theology, but is rather an inclination by some writers and teachers to integrate Christian thought into the spirit of the Age of Enlightenment. New understandings of history and the natural sciences of the day led directly to new approaches to theology.
Fundamentalism 20th Century
{{main|Christian fundamentalism}}
In reaction to liberal Bible critique,
Fundamentalism arose in the 20th century, primarily in the United States and Canada, among those denominations most affected by
Evangelicalism. Fundamentalism placed primary emphasis on the authority and sufficiency of the Bible, and typically advised separation from error, and cultural conservatism, as important aspects of the Christian life.
Neo-orthodoxy 20th century
{{main|Neo-orthodoxy}}
A non-fundamentalist rejection of liberal Christianity, associated primarily with
Karl Barth, neo-orthodoxy sought to counter-act the tendency of liberal theology to make theological accommodations to modern scientific perspectives. Sometimes called ''
Crisis theology'', according to the influence of philosophical
existentialism on some important segments of the movement; also, somewhat confusingly, sometimes called ''neo-evangelicalism''.
Neo-evangelicalism mid 20th Century
{{main|Neo-evangelicalism}}
Neo-evangelicalism is a movement from the middle of the 20th century, that reacted to perceived excesses of Fundamentalism, adding to concern for biblical authority, an emphasis on liberal arts, cooperation among churches, Christian
Apologetics, and non-denominational evangelization.
Ecumenism 20th Century
{{main|Christian ecumenism}}
The ecumenical movement has had an influence on
mainline churches, beginning at least in 1910 with the
Edinburgh Missionary Conference. Its origins lay in the recognition of the need for cooperation on the mission field in
Africa,
Asia and
Oceania. Since 1948, the
World Council of Churches has been influential. There are also ecumenical bodies at regional, national and local levels across the globe. One, but not the only expression of the ecumenical movement, has been the move to form united churches, such as the
Church of South India, the
Church of North India, The
United Church of Canada and the
Uniting Church in Australia. There has been a strong engagement of
Eastern Orthodox Orthodox churches in the ecumenical movement.
Protestant denominations
Protestants often refer to specific Protestant churches and groups as denominations to imply that they are differently named parts of the whole church. This "invisible unity" is assumed to be imperfectly displayed, visibly: some denominations are less accepting of others, and the basic orthodoxy of some is questioned by most of the others. Individual denominations also have formed over very subtle theological differences. Other denominations are simply regional or ethnic expressions of the same beliefs. The actual number of distinct denominations is hard to calculate, but has been estimated to be over thirty thousand. Various
Christian ecumenism ecumenical movements have attempted cooperation or reorganization of Protestant churches, according to various models of union, but divisions continue to outpace unions. Most denominations share common beliefs in the major aspects of the Christian faith, while differing in many secondary doctrines.
According to the ''World Christian Encyclopedia'' (2001) by David B. Barrett, ''et al'', there are "over 33,000 denominations in 238 countries". Every year there is a net increase of around 270 to 300 denominations.
Protestant families of denominations
Please note that only general '''families''' are listed here (tens of thousands of individual
List of Christian denominations denominations exist); some of these groups do not consider themselves as part of the Protestant movement, but are generally viewed as such by scholars and the public at large:
*
Anabaptist
*
Anglicanism Anglican / Episcopal
*
Baptist
*
Calvinism Calvinist /
Reformed churches Reformed/Congregational and
Presbyterian Church Presbyterian
*
Lutheranism Lutheran
*
Methodism Methodist / Wesleyan and the
Holiness movement
*
Pentecostalism Pentecostal and
Charismatic
*
Religious Society of Friends Quakerism
*
Restoration Movement Restoration movement
*
Non-denominational
Number of Protestants
{{main|Protestants by country}}
There are about 590 million Protestants worldwide. These include 170 million in North America, 160 million in Africa, 120 million in Europe, 70 million in Latin America, 60 million in Asia, and 10 million in Oceania. Nearly 27% of all Christians today are Protestants.
Well-known Protestant religious figures
In alphabetical order by century
15th century
*
Jan Hus, Czech reformist/dissident; burned to death by the Roman Catholic Church authorities unrepentant and persistent
heresy.
16th century
*
Jacobus Arminius, Dutch theologian, founder of school of thought known as
Arminianism
*
Heinrich Bullinger, successor of Zwingli, leading reformed theologian
*
John Calvin, French speaking
Protestant Reformation Reformer from Geneva, theologian, founder of school of thought known as Calvinism
*
Thomas Cranmer,
Archbishop of Canterbury under
Henry VIII of England Henry VIII, leader of the
English Reformation
*
John Knox, Scottish Calvinist
Protestant Reformation reformer,
*
Martin Luther, German religious
Protestant Reformation reformer, theologian, founder of the Lutheran church in Germany, founder of Lutheranism
*
Philipp Melanchthon, early Lutheran leader
*
Menno Simons, founder of
Mennonitism
*
Huldrych Zwingli, founder of Swiss reformed tradition
17th-19th centuries
*
Jacob Amman, founder of the
Amish church
*
Francis Asbury, early bishop of American Methodism
*
Jonathan Edwards (theology) Jonathan Edwards, American Puritan theologian, Great Awakening reformist preacher, Calvinist
*
George Fox, Founder of the
Religious Society of Friends
*
William Laud,
Archbishop of Canterbury under
Charles I of England
*
Friedrich Schleiermacher, German theologian considered founder of
Liberal Christianity
*
Joseph Smith, Jr., Self proclaimed Prophet, translator of
The Book of Mormon, and founder of
Mormonism
*
Philipp Jakob Spener, "godfather" of the
Pietism Pietist movement
*
Charles Wesley, Anglican priest,
Methodism Methodist leader, poet, & hymn writer
*
John Wesley, Anglican priest, founder of the
Methodism Methodist movement
*
George Whitefield, Great Awakening reformist preacher
20th century
*
Karl Barth, German theologian along with
Emil Brunner known for
Dialectical theology and
Neo-orthodoxy Neo-orthodox theology
*
Dietrich Bonhoeffer, German theologian, involved in the resistance against Nazism and executed shortly before the end of
World War II World War 2
*
Jerry Falwell, American evangelist and political activist
*
Austin Farrer, Anglican theologian, preacher, and philosopher
*
Billy Graham, American evangelist
*
Nicky Gumbel,
Anglican British evangelist
*
Martin Luther King, Jr., peace and civil rights activist
*
C. S. Lewis, Anglican novelist, literary scholar, and lay theologian
*
Reinhold Niebuhr, American theologion and ethicist
*
Pat Robertson, American charismatic/evangelical leader
*
Paul Tillich, Lutheran
existentialist theologian
*
Desmond Tutu,
Anglican Archbishop of
Cape Town,
South Africa, peace activist
*
John Howard Yoder,
Mennonite theologian and ethicist
*
James Dobson, American Psychologist and conservative activist, founder of Focus on the Family Ministry
21st century
*
John B. Cobb, theologian, involved in
Process theology Process Theology
*
Franklin Graham, American evangelist (son of Billy Graham)
*
Stanley Hauerwas, American Christian theologian and ethicist
*
John Shelby Spong, Former (Episcopal) Bishop of Newark, New Jersey
*
Marcus Borg, American Episcopal theologian (Lutheran background)
See also
*
Anglicanism
*
Anti-Catholicism
*
Anti-Protestantism
*
Ex protestants
*
Catholic Evangelical
*
Protestant Reformation
*
Protestant work ethic
*
Detailed_Christian_timeline#Renaissance_and_Reformation Christian timeline for Renaissance & Reformation
*
Christianity
*
Christian eschatology
*
Forgiveness
External links
'''Defense of Protestant Christianity:'''
-
Is Sola Scriptura a Protestant Concoction? by Dr. Greg Bahnsen
-
Why Protestants Still Protest by Peter J. Leithart
-
Apologetics Information Ministry
'''Criticisms of Protestant Christianity:'''
-
Catholic websites on Sola Scriptura
-
Anti-protestant analysis from the 1917 Catholic Encyclopedia
-
Why Only Catholicism Can Make Protestantism Work by Mark Brumley
'''Miscellaneous:'''
-
The Future of American Protestantism from ''Catalyst'' (
United Methodist Church United Methodist perspective)
-
Protestantism - Christianity in View
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This
:Category category comprises articles pertaining to
Protestant Christian denominations, which trace their origins to the
Protestant Reformation.
----
{{Christian denomination tree (categories)}}
Category:Christian denominations Protestantism
Category:Christian theology
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