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Richard nixon
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{{Infobox_President | name=Richard Nixon
| nationality=American
| image=Nixon.jpg
| order=37th President
| term_start=
January 20,
1969
| term_end=
August 9,
1974
| predecessor=
Lyndon B. Johnson
| successor=
Gerald Ford
| birth_date=
January 9,
1913
| birth_place=
Yorba Linda, California
| death_date=
April 22,
1994
| death_place=
City of New York New York,
New York
| spouse=
Pat Nixon Thelma Catherine Patricia Ryan (Pat) Nixon
| party=
United States Republican Party Republican
| vicepresident=
Spiro Agnew (1969–1973),
Gerald R. Ford (1973–
1974)
}}
'''Richard Milhous Nixon ''' (
January 9,
1913 –
April 22,
1994) was the 37th
President of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974. He was also the 36th
Vice President of the United States Vice President (1953–1961) serving under
Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon redefined the office of Vice President, making it for the first time a high visibility platform and base for a presidential candidacy. He is the only person to have been elected twice to the Vice Presidency and twice to the Presidency, and the only president to have
resignation resigned that office. His resignation came in the face of imminent
impeachment related to the
Watergate scandal.
Nixon is noted for his diplomatic
Foreign relations of the United States foreign policy, especially
détente with the
Soviet Union and
People's Republic of China China, and ending the
Vietnam War. He is also noted for his middle-of-the-road domestic policy that combined conservative rhetoric and, in many cases, liberal action, as in his environmental policy.
As president, Nixon imposed
price controls wage and price controls, indexed
Social Security for inflation, and created
Supplemental Security Income Supplemental Security Income (SSI). The number of pages added to the
Federal Register each year doubled under Nixon. He advocated
gun control and eradicated the last remnants of the
gold standard. Nixon created the
Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and
Occupational Safety and Health Administration Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and implemented the
Philadelphia Plan, the first significant federal
affirmative action program. As a party leader, Nixon helped build the GOP, but he ran his 1972 campaign separately from the party, which perhaps helped the GOP escape some of the damage from Watergate. See
History of United States Republican Party.
Birth and early years
Richard Nixon was born in
Yorba Linda, California to
Francis Nixon and Hannah Milhouse Nixon in a house his father built from a kit purchased from
Sears, Roebuck. He was raised by his mother as an
Evangelicalism evangelical Religious Society of Friends Quaker. His upbringing is said to have been marked by such conservative evangelical Quaker observances as refraining from drinking, dancing and swearing. His father (known as Frank) was a former member of the
Methodist Protestant Church who had sincerely converted to Quakerism but never fully absorbed its spirit, retaining instead a volatile temper. Richard Nixon's great-grandfather, George Nixon III, had been killed at the
Battle of Gettysburg during the
American Civil War while serving in the 73rd Ohio Volunteer Infantry.
Image:Lt_Cmdr_Richard_Nixon_1945.jpg left|The young Lt Commander Richard Nixon of the US Navy 1945
Nixon attended
Fullerton High School (California) Fullerton High School from 1926-28 and Whittier High School from 1928-30. He graduated first in his class; showing a penchant for
William Shakespeare Shakespeare and
Latin. He won a full
tuition scholarship from
Harvard University Harvard; since it did not cover living expenses, Nixon's family was unable to afford to send him away to college. Nixon attended
Whittier College, a local Quaker school where he co-founded
the Orthogonian Society, a
fraternity that competed with the already established
The Franklin Society Franklin Society. Nixon was elected student body president. A lifelong
American football football buff, Nixon practiced with the team assiduously but spent most of his time on the bench. In 1934, he graduated second in his class from Whittier and went on to
Duke University Duke University School of Law School of Law, where he received a full scholarship.
Nixon returned to California, passed the
bar (law) bar exam, and began working in the small-town law office of a family friend in nearby
La Mirada. The work was mostly routine, and Nixon generally found it to be dull, although he was entirely competent. He later wrote that family law cases caused him particular discomfort, since his reticent Quaker upbringing was severely at odds with the idea of discussing intimate marital details with strangers.
It was during this period that he met his wife
Pat Nixon Pat, a
high school teacher; they were married on
June 21,
1940. They had two daughters
Tricia Nixon Tricia and
Julie Nixon Eisenhower Julie.
During
World War II, Nixon served as an officer in the
United States Navy Navy. He received his training at
Quonset Point, Rhode Island, and
Ottumwa, Iowa, before serving in the supply corps in the South
Pacific. There he was known as "Nick" and for his prowess in
poker, banking a large sum that helped finance his first campaign for
United States Congress Congress.
Vice Presidency
Image:Eisenhower 68-40-67.jpg U.S. presidential election, 1952 thumb|250px|left|Nixon and Eisenhower at a [[U.S. presidential election, 1952|1952 Campaign stop.html" title="Meaning of 1952 Campaign.html" title="Meaning of thumb|250px|left|Nixon and Eisenhower at a [[U.S. presidential election, 1952|1952 Campaign">thumb|250px|left|Nixon and Eisenhower at a [[U.S. presidential election, 1952|1952 Campaign stop">1952 Campaign.html" title="Meaning of thumb|250px|left|Nixon and Eisenhower at a [[U.S. presidential election, 1952|1952 Campaign">thumb|250px|left|Nixon and Eisenhower at a [[U.S. presidential election, 1952|1952 Campaign stop
In
U.S. presidential election, 1952 1952 he was elected
Vice President on
Dwight D. Eisenhower's ticket, although he was only 39 years old.
One notable event of the campaign was Nixon's innovative use of
television. Nixon was accused by nameless sources of misappropriating money out of a business fund for personal use. He went on TV and defended himself in an emotional speech, where he provided an independent third-party review of the fund's accounting along with a personal summary of his finances, which he cited as exonerating him from wrongdoing, and he charged that the
Democratic Party (United States) Democratic Presidential candidate,
Adlai Stevenson, also had a
slush fund (see Memoirs of Richard Nixon, page 99). This speech would, however, become better known for its rhetoric, such as when he stated that his wife
Pat Nixon Pat did not wear mink, but rather "a respectable Republican cloth coat," and that although he had been given a
cocker spaniel named "Checkers" in addition to his other campaign contributions, he was not going to give it back because his daughters loved it. As a result, this speech became known as the "
Checkers speech" and it resulted in a flood of support, prompting Eisenhower to keep Nixon on the ticket.
Nixon reinvented the office of Vice President. Although he had no formal power, he had the attention of the media and the Republican party. He demonstrated for the first time that the office could be a springboard to the White House; most Vice Presidents since have followed his lead and sought the presidency (exceptions being
Nelson Rockefeller,
Spiro Agnew, and
Dick Cheney). Nixon was the first Vice President to actually step in to temporarily run the government. He did that three times when Eisenhower was ill: on the occasions of Eisenhower's
heart attack on
September 24,
1955; his
ileitis in June
1956; and his
stroke on
November 25,
1957. His quick thinking was on display on
July 24,
1959, at the opening of the American National Exhibition in
Moscow where he and
Soviet leader
Nikita Khrushchev had an impromptu "
kitchen debate" about the merits of
capitalism versus
communism.
1960 election and post-Vice Presidency
Image:Jfknixon.jpg thumb|Vice President Nixon, right, and Senator John Kennedy during their TV debate prior to the 1960 presidential election
In
U.S. presidential election, 1960 1960, he ran for President on his own but lost to
John F. Kennedy.
The race was very close all year long, and any number of small episodes could have tilted the results one way or the other, including the televised debates.
[[http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/K/htmlK/kennedy-nixon/kennedy-nixon.htm Kennedy-Nixon Presidential Debates, 1960] - Erika Tyner Allen, The Museum of Broadcast Communications, accessed April 4, 2006] Nixon campaigned on his experience, but Kennedy said it was time for new blood and suggested the Eisenhower-Nixon administration had been soft on defense.
In
1962, Nixon lost a race for
Governor of California. In his concession
speech, Nixon accused the media of favoring his opponent
Pat Brown, and stated that it was his "last press conference" and that "You don't have Nixon to kick around any more."
1968 Election
Nixon moved to
New York City where he became a well-paid senior partner in a leading law firm, Nixon Mudge Rose Guthrie & Alexander. During the
U.S. Congressional election, 1966 1966 Congressional elections, he stumped the country in support of Republican candidates, rebuilding his base in the party. In the
U.S. presidential election, 1968 election of 1968, he completed a remarkable political comeback by taking the nomination. Nixon appealed to what he called the "
silent majority" of socially conservative Americans who disliked the "
hippie"
counterculture and
anti-war demonstrators. Nixon promised "peace with honor," and without claiming to be able to win the war, Nixon claimed that "new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the
Pacific". He did not explain his plans to end the
Vietnam War war in Vietnam, leading
Hubert H. Humphrey and the media to allege that he must have some "
Election promise#Richard Nixon's Election promises secret plan." Nixon didn't invent the phrase, but he also did not disavow the term, and it soon became a part of the campaign. He defeated Humphrey and
George Wallace to become the 37th President of the United States.
Presidency 1968-1974
Policies
Once in office, he proposed the
Nixon Doctrine to establish a strategy of turning over the fighting of the war to the
Vietnamese people Vietnamese. In July 1969 he visited
South Vietnam, and met with President
Nguyen Van Thieu and with U.S. military commanders. American involvement in the war declined steadily until all American troops were gone in 1973. After the withdrawal of U.S. troops, fighting was left to the South Vietnamese army, which was well supplied with modern arms, but whose fighting capability was in question due to inadequate funding, low morale, and corruption. The lack of funding was primarily due to large funding cutbacks by the US Congress.
Nixon ordered secret bombing campaign in
Cambodia in March, 1969 (code-named ''Menu'') to destroy what were believed to be the headquarters and large numbers of soldiers of the
National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam.
Image:Nixon_greets_POW_McCain.jpg POW.html" title="Meaning of thumb thumb|left|President Nixon greets released [[POW (and future Republican Senator) Navy officer
John McCain III John McCain (on crutches) after years of imprisonment in
North Vietnam, 1973..html" title="Meaning of left|President Nixon greets released [[POW">thumb|left|President Nixon greets released [[POW (and future Republican Senator) Navy officer
John McCain III John McCain (on crutches) after years of imprisonment in
North Vietnam, 1973.">left|President Nixon greets released [[POW">thumb|left|President Nixon greets released [[POW (and future Republican Senator) Navy officer
John McCain III John McCain (on crutches) after years of imprisonment in
North Vietnam, 1973.
In ordering the bombings, Nixon realized he would be extending an unpopular war as well as breaching
Cambodia's "official" (but false) neutrality. During deliberations over Nixon's
impeachment, his unorthodox use of
executive powers over the ordering of these bombings was considered as an article of impeachment, but the charge was dropped as not a violation of Constitutional powers.
On
July 20,
1969, Nixon addressed
Neil Armstrong and
Buzz Aldrin during their historic
moonwalk, live via radio. Nixon also made the world's longest distance phone call to Neil Armstrong on the moon. On
January 5,
1972, Nixon approved the development of the
Space Shuttle program, a decision that profoundly influenced U.S. efforts to explore and develop space for several decades thereafter.
Image:Nixon_meets_Mao_in_China_1972.gif Chinese Communist Party.html" title="Meaning of thumb thumb|right|President Nixon greets [[Chinese Communist Party Mao Zedong Chairman Mao (left) in China visit 1972.html" title="Meaning of right|President Nixon greets [[Chinese Communist Party">thumb|right|President Nixon greets [[Chinese Communist Party
Mao Zedong Chairman Mao (left) in China visit 1972">right|President Nixon greets [[Chinese Communist Party">thumb|right|President Nixon greets [[Chinese Communist Party
Mao Zedong Chairman Mao (left) in China visit 1972
The 60's were a period of détente between the Western and Eastern Blocs. That changed dramatically by the early 70s. In 1960, the
People's Republic of China ended the alliance with its biggest ally, the
Soviet Union, in the
Sino-Soviet Split. As tensions between the two communist nations reached its peak in 1969 and 1970, Nixon decided to use their conflict to shift the balance of power towards the West in the Cold War. In what later would be known as the "China Card", Nixon deliberately improved relations with China in order to blackmail the Soviet Union. In 1971 a move was made to improve relationships when China invited an American table tennis team to China; hence the term "
Ping Pong Diplomacy". The US’s response was to support China’s entry into the U.N., something it had always vetoed. In October 1971, China entered the U.N. In 1972, Richard Nixon became the first US president to
Nixon visit to China 1972 visit "Red" China though the USA kept a massive naval fleet off of
Taiwan. Fearing the possibility of a Sino-American alliance, the Soviet Union yielded to Nixon immediately. The first
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks were finally concluded the same year.
Nixon was also very vocal in supporting General
Yahya Khan of
Pakistan despite escalating violence and
Genocide against
Bengalis in
East Pakistan. Subsequently declassified documents reveal the extent of support offered by Nixon to the dictator notwithstanding the widespread human rights violations.
[[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/ The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971] - Sajit Gandhi, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 79, December 16, 2002 ] He was also vocal in abusing
Prime Minister of India Indira Gandhi as an "old
witch" in private conversations with Henry Kissinger, who is also recorded as making derogatory comments against Indians.
[[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4633263.stm Nixon's dislike of 'witch' Indira] - BBC, June 29, 2005]
Nixon supported the wave of military
coup d'état "golpes de Estado" in
South America. Through
Henry Kissinger, he gave at least an implicit help to
Augusto Pinochet's coup, in 1973, and then helped set up
operation Condor (as evidenced by CIA documents released in 2000, following Pinochet's arrest in 1998). A US-intelligence base in
Panama Canal coordinated the acts of the various Latino secret services (
DINA,
Dirección de los Servicios de Inteligencia y Prevención DISIP, etc.)
He established the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) on
December 2,
1970.
In
U.S. presidential election, 1972 1972 Nixon was re-elected in one of the biggest landslide election victories in U.S. political history, defeating
George McGovern and garnering over 60% of the popular vote. He carried 49 of the 50 states, losing only in
Massachusetts.
On
January 2,
1974, Nixon signed a bill that lowered the maximum U.S.
speed limit to 55
mile per hour MPH (90
kilometers per hour km/h) in order to conserve
gasoline during the
1973 energy crisis. This law remained in effect until the late 1980s.
On
April 3,
1974, Nixon announced he would pay $432,787.13 in back taxes plus interest after a Congressional committee reported that he had inadvertently underpaid his 1969 and 1972 taxes.
In light of the near certainty of both his impeachment by the House of Representatives and his conviction by the Senate, Nixon resigned on
August 9,
1974.
Major initiatives
Image:Mobutu Nixon.gif Mobutu_Sese Seko.html" title="Meaning of thumb thumb|250px|[[Mobutu Sese Seko and Richard Nixon at
Washington D.C. 1973..html" title="Meaning of 250px|[[Mobutu Sese Seko">thumb|250px|[[Mobutu Sese Seko and Richard Nixon at
Washington D.C. 1973.">250px|[[Mobutu Sese Seko">thumb|250px|[[Mobutu Sese Seko and Richard Nixon at
Washington D.C. 1973.
*
Sino-American relations Normalizing of diplomatic relations with the
People's Republic of China and partially abandoning the
Republic of China on
Taiwan as part of
Realpolitik, a foreign policy eschewing moral considerations. In the short term Nixon was successful in playing the "China card" against the Soviet Union and its client state
North Vietnam.
*
Détente The peaceful pause in the Cold War; détente ended in 1979, replaced by another phase of the Cold War.
* Establishment of the
Environmental Protection Agency.
* Establishment of the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
* Establishment of the
Drug Enforcement Administration.
* Establishment of the
Supplemental Security Income program.
* Establishment of the
Minority Business Development Agency Office of Minority Business Enterprise
* Post Office Department abolished as a cabinet department and reorganized as a government owned corporation, the U.S Postal Service.
*
SALT I, or
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, led to the signing of the
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.
* "Vietnamization": the training and arming of South Vietnamese forces to allow the withdrawal of U.S. troops from
Vietnam.
* Suspension of the convertibility of the US dollar into gold, a central point of the
Bretton Woods system, allowing its value to float in world markets.
*
Space Shuttle program started.
Administration and Cabinet
Image:Nixon 30-0316a.gif 300px|right|thumb|Official Portrait of President Richard Nixon.
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left"
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|
President of the United States President||align="left" |'''Richard Nixon'''||align="left"|1969–1974
|-
|align="left"|
Vice President of the United States Vice President||align="left"|'''
Spiro T. Agnew'''||align="left"|1969–1973
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
Gerald R. Ford'''||align="left"|1973–1974
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|
United States Secretary of State State||align="left"|'''
William P. Rogers'''||align="left"|1969–1973
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
Henry A. Kissinger'''||align="left"|1973–1974
|-
|align="left"|
United States Secretary of the Treasury Treasury||align="left"|'''
David M. Kennedy'''||align="left"|1969–1971
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
John B. Connally'''||align="left"|1971–1972
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
George P. Shultz'''||align="left"|1972–1974
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
William E. Simon'''||align="left"|1974
|-
|align="left"|
United States Secretary of Defense Defense||align="left"|'''
Melvin R. Laird'''||align="left"|1969–1973
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
Elliot L. Richardson'''||align="left"|1973–1973
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
James R. Schlesinger'''||align="left"|1973–1974
|-
|align="left"|
Attorney General of the United States Justice||align="left"|'''
John N. Mitchell'''||align="left"|1969–1972
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
Richard G. Kleindienst'''||align="left"|1972–1973
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
Elliot L. Richardson'''||align="left"|1973–1974
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
William B. Saxbe'''||align="left"|1974
|-
|align="left"|
Postmaster General of the United States Postmaster General||align="left"|'''
Winton M. Blount'''||align="left"|1969–1974
|-
|align="left"|
United States Secretary of the Interior Interior||align="left"|'''
Walter J. Hickel'''||align="left"|1969–1971
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
Rogers C. B. Morton'''||align="left"|1971–1974
|-
|align="left"|
United States Secretary of Agriculture Agriculture||align="left"|'''
Clifford M. Hardin'''||align="left"|1969–1971
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
Earl Butz Earl L. Butz'''||align="left"|1971–1974
|-
|align="left"|
United States Secretary of Commerce Commerce||align="left"|'''
Maurice H. Stans'''||align="left"|1969–1972
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
Peter Peterson Peter George Peterson'''||align="left"|1972–1973
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
Frederick B. Dent'''||align="left"|1973–1974
|-
|align="left"|
United States Secretary of Labor Labor||align="left"|'''
George P. Shultz'''||align="left"|1969–1970
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
James D. Hodgson'''||align="left"|1970–1973
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
Peter J. Brennan'''||align="left"|1973–1974
|-
|align="left"|
United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare HEW||align="left"|'''
Robert H. Finch'''||align="left"|1969–1970
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
Elliot L. Richardson'''||align="left"|1970–1973
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
Caspar W. Weinberger'''||align="left"|1973–1974
|-
|align="left"|
United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development HUD||align="left"|'''
George W. Romney George Romney'''||align="left"|1969–1973
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
James T. Lynn'''||align="left"|1973–1974
|-
|align="left"|
United States Secretary of Transportation Transportation||align="left"|'''
John A. Volpe'''||align="left"|1969–1973
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''
Claude S. Brinegar'''||align="left"|1973–1974
|}
Supreme Court appointments
Nixon appointed the following Justices to the
Supreme Court of the United States:
*
Warren E. Burger - Chief Justice - 1969
*
Harry Andrew Blackmun - 1970
*
Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr. - 1972
*
William Rehnquist - 1972
Nixon also made the following unsuccessful Supreme Court nominations:
*
Harrold Carswell - rejected by the
United States Senate
*
Clement Haynesworth - rejected by the
United States Senate
*
Hershel Friday - passed over in favor of
Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr. Lewis Powell after the
American Bar Association found Friday "unqualified"
*
Mildred Lillie - passed over in favor of
William Rehnquist after the
American Bar Association found Lillie "unqualified"
Watergate
{{main|Watergate scandal}}
Image:NixonResignationLetter.gif thumb|right|Nixon's letter of resignation
Image:Nixon_and_Kissinger.png Egypt.html"_title="Meaning of left left|thumb|[[Egyptian_Foreign Minister
Ismail Fahmi, Richard Nixon and
Henry Kissinger..html" title="Meaning of thumb|[[Egypt">left|thumb|[[Egyptian Foreign Minister
Ismail Fahmi, Richard Nixon and
Henry Kissinger.">thumb|[[Egypt">left|thumb|[[Egyptian Foreign Minister
Ismail Fahmi, Richard Nixon and
Henry Kissinger.
Image:Nixon-depart.png August 9.html" title="Meaning of thumb thumb|right|Nixon departing the White House on [[August 9,
1974.html" title="Meaning of right|Nixon departing the White House on [[August 9">thumb|right|Nixon departing the White House on [[August 9,
1974">right|Nixon departing the White House on [[August 9">thumb|right|Nixon departing the White House on [[August 9,
1974
In October 1972, ''
The Washington Post'' reported the FBI had determined Nixon aides had spied on and sabotaged numerous Democratic presidential candidates as a part of the operations that led to the infamous
Watergate scandal. During the campaign five burglars were arrested on
June 17,
1972 in the
United States Democratic Party Democratic Party headquarters at the
Watergate office complex. They were subsequently linked to the
White House. This became one of a series of major scandals involving the
Committee to Re-Elect the President (known as CRP but referred to by outsiders as CREEP), including the White House
Nixon's Enemies List enemies list and assorted "
dirty tricks." The ensuing Watergate scandal exposed the Nixon administration's rampant corruption, illegality, and deceit. Nixon himself downplayed the scandal as mere politics, but when his aides resigned in disgrace, Nixon's role in ordering an illegal cover-up came to light in the press, courts, and congressional investigations. Nixon evaded taxes, accepted illicit
campaign contributions, ordered secret bombings, and harassed opponents with
executive agencies,
wiretaps, and break-ins. Vice President
Spiro Agnew resigned in October 1973 for accepting
bribes, but Nixon hung on to power, claiming, "I'm not a crook." His secret recordings of
White House conversations were
subpoenaed, and revealed details of his complicity in the cover-up. Nixon was named by the grand jury investigating Watergate as "an unindicted co-conspirator" in the
Watergate Scandal. He lost support from some in his own party as well as much popular support after what became known as the
Saturday Night Massacre of
October 20,
1973 in which he ordered
Archibald Cox, the
special prosecutor in the Watergate case fired, as well as firing several of his own subordinates who objected to this move. The
U.S. House Committee on the Judiciary House Judiciary Committee opened formal and public
impeachment hearings against Nixon on
May 9,
1974. Despite his efforts, one of the secret recordings, known as the "smoking gun" tape, was released on
August 5,
1974 and revealed that Nixon authorized hush money to Watergate burglar
E. Howard Hunt, and also revealed that Nixon arranged for the blackmailing of the
CIA into telling the
FBI to stop investigating certain topics because of "the Bay of Pigs thing". Several of the Watergate burglars were involved in the
Bay of Pigs operation.
H. R. Haldeman Haldeman would later claim that when Nixon used the phrase "the Bay of Pigs thing," he was actually referring to the
assassination of President John F. Kennedy. In light of his loss of political support and the near certainty of both his impeachment by the House of Representatives and his conviction by the
United States Senate Senate, he resigned on
August 9,
1974, after addressing the nation on
television the previous evening. {{Audio|Nixon_Resign.ogg|listen}} He never admitted wrongdoing, though he later conceded errors of judgment. Had he not resigned, he would assuredly have been the second American president to be impeached, after
Andrew Johnson a hundred years earlier.
On September 8, 1974, a blanket pardon from President
Gerald R. Ford, who served as Nixon's second
vice president, effectively ended any possibility of indictment. The pardon was highly controversial and Nixon's critics claimed that the blanket pardon was
quid pro quo for his resignation. No evidence of this "
corrupt bargain" has ever been proven, and many modern historians dismiss any claims of overt collusion between the two men concerning the pardon. The pardon hurt Ford politically, and it was one of the major reasons cited for Ford's defeat in the election of 1976.
Later years and death
In his later years Nixon worked to rehabilitate his public image, and enjoyed considerably more success than could have been anticipated at the time of his resignation. He gained great respect as an elder statesman in the area of foreign affairs, being consulted by both Democratic and Republican successors to the Presidency.
Further tape releases, however, removed any doubt of Nixon's involvement both in the Watergate cover-up and also the illegal campaign finances and intrusive government surveillance that were at the heart of the scandal.
Nixon wrote many books after his departure from politics, including his memoirs.
On
April 18,
1994, Nixon, 81, suffered a major
stroke, and died four days later on
April 22. He was buried beside his wife
Pat Nixon (who had died ten months earlier, on
June 22,
1993, of
lung cancer) on the grounds of the
Richard Nixon Library & Birthplace in
Yorba Linda, California.
President
Bill Clinton, former secretary of state
Henry Kissinger, Senate Majority Leader
Bob Dole and California Republican Governor
Pete Wilson spoke at the
April 27 funeral, the first for an American president since that of
Lyndon Johnson on
January 25,
1973, a ceremony Nixon presided over when president; also in attendance were former presidents
Gerald Ford,
Jimmy Carter,
Ronald Reagan,
George H. W. Bush and their respective first ladies. Nixon was survived by his two daughters, along with his four grandchildren.
The Nixon Library contains only Nixon's pre- and post-presidential papers, as his presidential papers have been retained as government evidence. Nixon's attempts to protect his papers and gain tax advantages from them had been one of the important themes of the Watergate affair. Due to
Richard Nixon Library & Birthplace#Nixon record controversies disputes over the papers, the library is privately funded and does not, like the other
presidential library presidential libraries, receive support from the
National Archives and Records Administration National Archives.
Media
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item |
filename=Nixon Resignation.ogg|
title=Complete Nixon Resignation Speech|
description=Televised speech from the Oval Office on
8 August 1974 in entirety. (5.5
Megabyte MB,
ogg/
Vorbis format). |
format=
Vorbis}}
{{multi-listen item |
filename=Nixon Resign.ogg|
title=Nixon Resignation Excerpt|
description=Excerpt of televised speech from the Oval Office on
8 August 1974. (80
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{{Commonscat|Richard Nixon}}
Quotations
{{wikiquote}}
*"You don't have Nixon to kick around anymore. Because, gentlemen, this is my last press conference."
1962 after losing the race for Governor of
California.
*"This is the greatest week in the history of the world since the Creation, because as a result of what happened in this week, the world is bigger, infinitely." (concerning the
Apollo 11 ''Apollo'' Moon landing)
Foreign policy
*"People react to fear, not love- they don't teach that in Sunday School, but it's true." (concerning fear and paranoia in the Cold War)
*"No event in American history is more misunderstood than the Vietnam War. It was misreported then, and it is misremembered now." (
1985 looking back at the Vietnam War)
*On his secret war in Cambodia even after it became public knowledge. "Publicly, we say one thing....Actually, we do another."
On race
* “But by God, they're exceptions. But Bob, generally speaking, you can't trust the bastards. They turn on us.� (On
Jews, to
Bob Haldeman)
[[http://www.slate.com/id/1003783/ Nixon: I Am Not an Anti-Semite] - Timothy Noah, ''Slate'', October 7, 1999]
* “Jewish families are close, but there's this strange malignancy that seems to creep among them - radicalism.�
* “You can never put, John, any person who is a Jew on a civil rights kind of case, or freedom of the press kind of case, and get even a ten percent chance. . . . Basically, who the hell are these people that stole the papers? It's too bad. I'm sorry. I was hoping one of them would be a gentile.�
* "You know, it's a funny thing, every one of the bastards that are out for legalizing marijuana is Jewish. What the Christ is the matter with the Jews, Bob? What is the matter with them? I suppose it is because most of them are psychiatrists." 26th May 1971
* “What about the rich Jews? The IRS is full of Jews, Bob.� 14th of September 1971
* "The Jews are irreligious, atheistic, immoral bunch of bastards." 1st of February 1972, Nixon telling
Bob Haldeman
* “I have the greatest affection for them [blacks], but I know they're not going to make it for 500 years. They aren't. You know it, too. The Mexicans are a different cup of tea. They have a heritage. At the present time they steal, they're dishonest, but they do have some concept of family life. They don't live like a bunch of dogs, which the Negroes do live like.�
On Watergate
Image:Pres38-42.jpg Gerald Ford thumb|Presidents [[Gerald Ford|Ford,
Jimmy Carter Carter,
Ronald Reagan Reagan,
George H. W. Bush Bush, and
Bill Clinton Clinton watched over Nixon's funeral in 1994. He was the first president to die since
Lyndon Johnson in the 70's while Nixon was still president..html" title="Meaning of Ford.html" title="Meaning of thumb|Presidents [[Gerald Ford|Ford">thumb|Presidents [[Gerald Ford|Ford,
Jimmy Carter Carter,
Ronald Reagan Reagan,
George H. W. Bush Bush, and
Bill Clinton Clinton watched over Nixon's funeral in 1994. He was the first president to die since
Lyndon Johnson in the 70's while Nixon was still president.">Ford.html" title="Meaning of thumb|Presidents [[Gerald Ford|Ford">thumb|Presidents [[Gerald Ford|Ford,
Jimmy Carter Carter,
Ronald Reagan Reagan,
George H. W. Bush Bush, and
Bill Clinton Clinton watched over Nixon's funeral in 1994. He was the first president to die since
Lyndon Johnson in the 70's while Nixon was still president.
*"When you get in these people when you...get these people in, say: "Look, the problem is that this will open the whole, the whole Bay of Pigs thing, and the President just feels that" ah, without going into the details... don't, don't lie to them to the extent to say there is no involvement, but just say this is sort of a comedy of errors, bizarre, without getting into it, "the President believes that it is going to open the whole Bay of Pigs thing up again. And, ah because these people are plugging for, for keeps and that they should call the FBI in and say that we wish for the country, don't go any further into this case", period!" The 'smoking gun tape' on
June 23,
1972. Nixon was telling Haldeman to tell the CIA to stop the FBI investigation, by telling the CIA that it would 'open the whole Bay of Pigs thing.' Haldeman did give Nixon's order to the CIA's Richard Helms, who exploded into a rage of fury when told, according to Haldeman. Haldeman would later write that Nixon used the expression 'the Bay of Pigs thing' when he was referring to the assassination of President John F. Kennedy.
*"I want to say this to the television audience. I made my mistakes, but in all of my years of public life, I have never profited, never profited from public service. I have earned every cent. And in all of my years of public life, I have never obstructed justice. And I think, too, that I can say that in my years of public life, that I welcome this kind of examination because people have got to know whether or not their President's a crook. Well, I'm not a crook. I've earned everything I've got."
November 17,
1973 Televised press conference with 400 Associated Press Managing Editors at
Walt Disney World,
Florida, Nixon summarized his responses to journalists' questions regarding speculation and criticism of his
personal finances and the Watergate scandal.
*"I don't give a shit what happens. I want you all to stonewall it, let them plead the
Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution#Self-incrimination Fifth Amendment, cover up or anything else, if it'll save it, save this plan. That's the whole point. We're going to protect our people if we can." (to Haldeman, tapes ordered released for the trial of
H. R. Haldeman Haldeman,
John Ehrlichman Ehrlichman and
John N. Mitchell Mitchell)
*"I recognize that this additional material I am now furnishing may further damage my case," (after the ordered release of the
White House tapes
August 5 1974)
*"Well, when the President does it, that means that it's not illegal." (explaining his interpretation of Executive Privilege to interviewer
David Frost (broadcaster) David Frost on television, May 19, 1977)
[[http://www.landmarkcases.org/nixon/nixonview.html Nixon's Views on Presidential Power: Excerpts from an Interview with David Frost] - Landmark United States Supreme Court Supreme Court Cases, ''United States v. Nixon'', interview on May 19, 1977]
*"I was under medication when I made the decision not to burn the tapes."
*"Well, I screwed it all up real good, didn't I?"
*"The greatness comes not when things go always good for you, but the greatness comes and you are really tested, when you take some knocks, some disappointments, when sadness comes, because only if you have been in the deepest valley can you ever know how magnificent it is to be on the highest mountain... Always remember, others may hate you. Those who hate you don't win unless you hate them. And then you destroy yourself." Farewell to White House staff
August 8 1974.
*"I think that the ability of the American people to review all that there is to know about their president using a microscope is wonderful. Still, I think some people get a little carried away when they take out their proctoscopes." (regarding the intense scrutiny which he was forced to endure.)
On peace
*"Any nation that decides the only way to achieve peace is through peaceful means is a nation that will soon be a piece of another nation." (from his book ''No More Vietnams'')
*"The greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker." (From his 1969 inaugural; later used as Nixon's
epitaph)
Miscellaneous
*"Sock it to ''me''?" (cameo on the
television comedy series ''
Laugh-In'' during the 1968 election)
*"I don't know a lot about politics, but I do know a lot about
baseball."
*"Solutions are not the answer."
*"I would have made a good
pope."
*"Let me say this about that."
*"cookie pushers and faggots in striped pants", referring to the
Peace Corps and the State Dept.
Foreign Service.
*"
Joseph McCarthy McCarthy goes after Communists with a shotgun; I go after them with a rifle."
*"We are all
John Maynard Keynes Keynesians now."
*"Bunch of big 'ol flag-mangling traitors," referring to the Democratic Party after the nomination of George McGovern.
*"In all the decisions I have made in my public life, I have always tried to do what was best for the nation. I have never been a quitter."
*"Any man who has had power, has been a lonely man."
Nixon's image and media portrayals
Nixon's career was frequently dogged by Nixon's personality, and the public perception of it. Editorial cartoonists such as
Herblock and comedians had fun exaggerating Nixon's appearance and mannerisms, to the point where the line between the human and the caricature version of him became increasingly blurred. He was often portrayed as a sullen loner, with unshaven jowls, slumped shoulders, and a furrowed, sweaty brow. He was also characterized as the very epitome of a "square" and the personification of unpleasant adult authority. Nixon tried to shed these perceptions by staging
photo-ops with young people, and even cameo appearances on popular TV shows such as ''
Laugh-In'' and ''
Hee Haw'' (before he was president). He also frequently brandished the two-finger
V sign (alternately viewed as the "Victory sign" or "peace sign") using both hands, an act which became one of his best-known trademarks. Once the transcripts of the White House tapes were released, people were shocked at the amount of swearing and vicious comments about opponents that Nixon issued. This did not help the public perception, and fed the comedians even more. Nixon's sense of being persecuted by his "enemies," his grandiose belief in his own moral and political excellence, and his commitment to utilize ruthless power at all costs led some experts to describe him as having a
narcissistic and
paranoid personality.
[[http://www.ralphmag.org/nixon.html Nixon: A Psychobiography] - Vamik D. Volkan,
Norman Itzkowitz, and Andrew W. Dod, book review by Michael A. Ingall, accessed April 4, 2006] During the Watergate Scandal, Nixon's approval rating had fallen to 25%.
Image:elvis-nixon.jpg Elvis Presley.html" title="Meaning of thumb thumb|200px|Nixon meets [[Elvis Presley in December 1970.html" title="Meaning of 200px|Nixon meets [[Elvis Presley">thumb|200px|Nixon meets [[Elvis Presley in December 1970">200px|Nixon meets [[Elvis Presley">thumb|200px|Nixon meets [[Elvis Presley in December 1970
*The book and movie ''
All the President's Men'' tell Woodward and Bernstein's story of the Watergate affair.
*Best-selling historian-author
Stephen Ambrose wrote a three-volume biography (''Nixon: The Education of a Politician 1913-1962'', ''Nixon: The Triumph of a Politician, 1962-1972'', ''Nixon: Ruin and Recovery 1973-1990'') considered the definitive work among many Nixon biographies. The detailed accounts were mostly favorably regarded by both liberal and conservative reviewers.
*Conservative author
Victor Lasky published a book in
1977 called ''It Didn't Start With Watergate''. The book points out that past presidents may have used
wiretaps and engaged in other activities that Nixon was accused of, but were never pursued by the press or the subject of impeachment hearings.
*
Chuck Colson gives an insider account of the Watergate affair in ''
Born Again''.
*
H.R. Haldeman also provides an insider's perspective in the books ''The Ends of Power'' and ''The Haldeman Diaries: Inside the Nixon White House''
*The movie ''
Nixon (movie) Nixon'' directed by
Oliver Stone.
*''
Nixon in China (opera) Nixon in China'' is an
opera dealing with Nixon's visit there.
Nixon in popular culture
Image:Simpsons - Nixon Whacking Day.jpg Whacking Day.html" title="Meaning of thumb thumb|right|Richard Nixon participating in [[Whacking Day on ''The Simpsons''.html" title="Meaning of right|Richard Nixon participating in [[Whacking Day">thumb|right|Richard Nixon participating in [[Whacking Day on ''The Simpsons''">right|Richard Nixon participating in [[Whacking Day">thumb|right|Richard Nixon participating in [[Whacking Day on ''The Simpsons''
image:nixonhead.gif Futurama.html" title="Meaning of left left|thumb|100px|Richard Nixon's head on ''[[Futurama''.html" title="Meaning of thumb|100px|Richard Nixon's head on ''[[Futurama">left|thumb|100px|Richard Nixon's head on ''[[Futurama''">thumb|100px|Richard Nixon's head on ''[[Futurama">left|thumb|100px|Richard Nixon's head on ''[[Futurama''
Because of his place in American culture as a controversial President, Richard Nixon has appeared as a character (with varying degrees of verisimilitude), both major and minor, in a variety of fiction.
*''
The Assassination of Richard Nixon''
*''
The Cayman Triangle''
*
Dick_(movie) Dick, a 1999 comedy about the Watergate scandal, featuring Richard Nixon as a character.
*''
Elvis Meets Nixon''
*''
Point Break''
*''
Forrest Gump''
*''
Hot Shots! Part Deux''
*''
Secret Honor''
*''
The Simpsons''
* ''
Futurama (animated series) Futurama'', where Nixon's preserved
head is elected
President of Earth.
*''
Watchmen'', set in an
alternate history (fiction) alternative reality in which Nixon is still President in the mid-
1980s.
* The "
1985-A alternative 1985" in ''
Back to the Future Part II'' (
1989) has Nixon as the longest-serving President (newspaper states that he "seeks fifth term")
*
Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young song ''
Ohio (song) Ohio'' about the
Kent State Massacre, attributes blame to Nixon.
*
Neil Young's song ''Campaigner'' has a refrain discussing a place "where even Richard Nixon has got soul".
* "
The Love of Richard Nixon" is a song by
Manic Street Preachers.
* "Nixon's Spirit" is a song on
Paul Oakenfold's album
Bunkka, with vocals by
Hunter S. Thompson.
* The
Richard Nixon mask is a popular costuming item.
*
Rage Against the Machine's
Grammy Award winning track for
Best Metal Performance, 'Tire Me' on 1996's
Evil_Empire_(album) Evil Empire, was written to celebrate the death of Richard Nixon.
Trivia
* The very first Kennedy-Nixon debate took place on
April 21,
1947, when Democratic Congressman
Frank Buchanan selected freshman congressmen Nixon and
John F. Kennedy to debate the
Taft-Hartley Act at a public meeting.
* In 1952, Nixon became the first native-born Californian to appear on a presidential ticket when he became running mate to
Dwight Eisenhower.
* On
June 14,
1959, Vice-President Nixon and his family inaugurated the
Disneyland Monorail System, the first daily operating monorail in the western hemisphere.
* On
December 22,
1968,
Julie Nixon (Richard's daughter) and
David Eisenhower (Dwight's grandson) were married.
* From
January 22,
1973, when his predecessor
Lyndon Johnson died, until his resignation on
August 9,
1974, Nixon was the only living current or former U.S. President. From
January 20,
1993 until Nixon's death on
April 22,
1994, there was a record total of six living Presidents, these being every chief executive from Nixon himself to then-incumbent
Bill Clinton.
* Nixon financed much of his first congressional campaign with the poker winnings he accumulated in the U.S. Navy during World War II.
* Nixon was an accomplished pianist, as was
Harry Truman.
* Nixon was the first U.S. President to visit the People's Republic of China.
* Nixon was the second U.S President to visit the Soviet Union (the first was President
Franklin Roosevelt at the Yalta Conference in 1945).
* Nixon was an avid bowler and allegedly once bowled a perfect game.
* Nixon was a knowledgable sports fan, with a particular interest in football and baseball. During his presidency, he even had the odd habit of calling the losing team after the Super Bowl to offer his condolences and support.
* Nixon was the first president to visit all 50 states.
* Nixon played golf frequently, as did
Dwight Eisenhower and
John F. Kennedy.
* Nixon's last public appearance was at a
Conestoga High School performance of
Little Red Riding Hood in
Into the Woods. His granddaughter Jennie Eisenhower, great-granddaughter of
Dwight D. Eisenhower, starred in the play.
[[http://www.zwire.com/site/news.cfm?newsid=10647757&BRD=1676&PAG=461&dept_id=43790&rfi=6 Choosing theater over politics] - Ruth Rovner, ''Main Line Times'', December 11, 2003]
See also
{{main|:Category:Richard Nixon}}
*
U.S. presidential election, 1952
*
U.S. presidential election, 1956
*
U.S. presidential election, 1960
*
U.S. presidential election, 1968
*
U.S. presidential election, 1972
*
History of the United States (1964-1980) History of the United States (1964–1980)
*
Richard Nixon Library & Birthplace in Yorba Linda, California
References
Primary sources
* Nixon, Richard. (1960). ''The Challenges We Face: Edited and Compiled from the Speeches and Papers of Richard M. Nixon'' ISBN 0195457626.
* Nixon, Richard. (1962). ''Six Crises''. Doubleday. ISBN 0385001258.
* Nixon, Richard. (1978). ''RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon'' (Reprint). Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671707418.
* Nixon, Richard. (1980). ''Real War''. Sidgwich Jackson. ISBN 0283986506.
* Nixon, Richard. (1982). ''Leaders''. Random House. ISBN 0446512494.
* Nixon, Richard. (1987). ''No More Vietnams''. Arbor House Publishing. ISBN 0877956685.
* Nixon, Richard. (1988). ''1999: Victory Without War''. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671627120.
* Nixon, Richard. (1990). ''In the Arena: A Memoir of Victory, Defeat, and Renewal''. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671723189.
* Nixon, Richard. (1992). ''Seize The Moment: America's Challenge In A One-Superpower World''. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671743430.
* Nixon, Richard. (1994). ''Beyond Peace''. Random House. ISBN 0679433236.
Secondary sources
*
Stephen Ambrose Ambrose, Stephen E. ''Nixon: The Education of a Politician 1913–1962'' (1987).
*
Stephen Ambrose Ambrose, Stephen E. ''Nixon: The Triumph of a Politician, 1962–1972'' (1989).
*
Stephen Ambrose Ambrose, Stephen E. ''Nixon: Ruin and Recovery 1973–1990'' (1991).
* Flippen, J. Brooks. ''Nixon and the Environment'' (2000).
* Friedman, Leon and William F. Levantrosser, eds. ''Watergate and Afterward: The Legacy of Richard M. Nixon'' (1992), essays.
* Friedman, Leon and William F. Levantrosser, eds. ''Richard M. Nixon: Politician, President, Administrator'' (1991), essays.
* Gellman, Irwin. ''The Contender: Richard Nixon: The Congress Years, 1946 to 1952'' (1999).
* Genovese, Michael A. ''The Nixon Presidency: Power and Politics in Turbulent Times'' (1990).
* Greenberg, David. ''Nixon's Shadow: The History of an Image'' (2003).
* Hoff, Joan. ''Nixon Reconsidered'' (1994).
*
Henry Kissinger Kissinger, Henry. ''Memoirs.'' 2 vols. (1979-1982).
* Kutler, Stanley I. "'The Wars of Watergate: The Last Crisis of Richard Nixon.'' (1990).
* Levantrosser, William F. ed. ''Cold War Patriot and Statesman, Richard M. Nixon'' (1993), essays by scholars and senior officials.
* Morris, Roger. ''Richard Milhous Nixon: The Rise of an American Politician'' (1990).
* Parmet, Herbert S. ''Richard Nixon and His America.'' (1990).
* Reeves, Richard. ''President Nixon: Alone in the White House'' (2002).
* Reichley, A. James. ''Conservatives in an Age of Change: The Nixon and Ford Administrations'' (1981), detailed narrative.
* Small, Melvin. ''The Presidency of Richard Nixon'' (2003).
* Summers, Anthony. ''The Arrogance of Power The Secret World of Richard Nixon'' (2000).
* Thornton, Richard C. ''The Nixon-Kissinger Years: Reshaping America's Foreign Policy'' (1989).
* Wicker, Tom. ''One of Us: Richard Nixon and the American Dream'' (1991).
Notes
External links
{{commons|Richard Nixon}}
{{wikisource author}}
-
White House biography
* {{gutenberg author|id=Richard_Milhous_Nixon|name=Richard Nixon}}
-
1984 audio interview with Richard Nixon by Don Swaim of CBS Radio, RealAudio
* {{imdb name|id=0633271|name=Richard Nixon}}
* {{CongBio|N000116}}
-
Nixon Presidential Materials at National Archives
-
Articles of Impeachment
-
Richard Nixon Library & Birthplace, Yorba Linda, California
-
The Nixon Center, Washington,D.C.
-
whitehousetapes.org: The Nixon Tapes available online
-
Judiciary Committee Hearings Appendix I: Presidential Statements on the Watergate Breakin and Its Investigation
-
Political Donations Made by Richard Nixon
-
Eulogy by Hunter S. Thompson
Speeches
-
First Inaugural Address
-
Second Inaugural Address
-
Audio recordings of Nixon's speeches
-
Checkers speech
-
Resignation speech
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{{succession box
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{{Persondata
|NAME=Nixon, Richard Milhous
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Richard Nixon
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=
United States American politician, 37th
president of the United States (
1969-
1974)
|DATE OF BIRTH=
9 January 1913
|PLACE OF BIRTH=
Yorba Linda,
California,
United States
|DATE OF DEATH=
22 April 1994
|PLACE OF DEATH=
New York City,
New York,
United States}}
Category:1913 births Nixon, Richard
Category:1994 deaths Nixon, Richard
Category:American World War II veterans Nixon, Richard
Category:Anti-Semitic people Nixon, Richard
Category:Cold War Nixon, Richard
Category:Debaters Nixon, Richard
Category:Disbarred attorneys Nixon, Richard
Category:Duke University alumni Nixon, Richard
Category:Irish-Americans Nixon, Richard
Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from California Nixon, Richard
Category:People from Orange County, California Nixon, Richard
Category:People who were pardoned by the President of the United States Nixon, Richard
Category:Presidents of the United States Nixon, Richard
Category:Quakers Nixon, Richard
Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees Nixon, Richard
Category:Republican Party (United States) vice presidential nominees Nixon, Richard
Category:Richard Nixon Nixon, Richard
Category:Time Magazine Person of the Year Nixon, Richard
Category:United States Navy officers Nixon, Richard
Category:United States Senators from California Nixon, Richard
Category:Vice Presidents of the United States Nixon, Richard
Category:Vietnam War people Nixon, Richard
Category:Watergate figures Nixon, Richard
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ca:Richard Nixon
cs:Richard Nixon
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es:Richard M. Nixon
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fr:Richard Nixon
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pt:Richard Milhous Nixon
ru:Ð?икÑ?он, Ричард Милхауз
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sr:Ричард Ð?икÑ?он
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