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Language family
*** Shopping-Tip: Language family
Image:Human Language Families (wikicolors).png thumb|right|380px|Current distribution of Human Language Families
Most
languages are known to belong to '''language families.''' An accurately identified family is a
phylogeny phylogenetic unit; that is, all its members derive from a common ancestor. This ancestor is very seldom known to us directly, since most languages have a very short recorded history. However, it is possible to recover many of its features by applying the
comparative method—a reconstructive procedure worked out by
19th century linguist August Schleicher. This can demonstrate the validity of many of the proposed families listed below.
Language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, conventionally referred to as ''branches'' of the family, because the history of a language family is often represented as a
tree diagram. However, the term ''family'' is not restricted to any one level of this "tree"; the
Germanic languages Germanic family, for example, is a branch of the
Indo-European languages Indo-European family. Some taxonomists do restrict the term ''family'' to a certain level, but there is little consensus in how to do this. Those who do affix such labels also subdivide branches into ''groups'', and groups into ''complexes''. They also aggregate families into ''phyla'' (also known as ''stocks'', or ''superfamilies''). Phyla are often used to aggregate American Indian language families. One method for doing all of this is called
glottochronology.
The common ancestor of a family is known as its ''
protolanguage''. For example, the reconstructible
protolanguage of the well-known Indo-European family is called
Proto-Indo-European_language Proto-Indo-European. This is not known from written records, since it was spoken before the invention of writing, but sometimes a protolanguage can be identified with a historically known language. Thus, provincial dialects of
Latin ("
Vulgar Latin") gave rise to the modern
Romance languages, so the Proto-Romance language is more or less identical with Latin (if not exactly with the literary Latin of the Classical writers), and dialects of
Old Norse are the protolanguage to
Norwegian language Norwegian,
Swedish language Swedish,
Danish language Danish,
Faroese language Faroese and
Icelandic language Icelandic.
Languages that cannot be reliably classified into any family are known as
language isolates. A language isolated in its own branch within a family, such as
Greek language Greek within Indo-European, is often also called an isolate, but such cases are usually clarified. For instance, Greek might be referred to as an Indo-European isolate.
Largest families
According to the numbers in
Ethnologue[http://www.ethnologue.com/web.asp], the largest language families in terms of number of languages are:
#
Niger-Congo (1514 languages)
#
Austronesian (1268 languages)
#
Trans-New Guinea (564 languages) (validity disputed)
#
Indo-European languages Indo-European (449 languages)
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Sino-Tibetan (403 languages)
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Afro-Asiatic (375 languages)
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Nilo-Saharan (204 languages)
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Pama-Nyungan languages Pama-Nyungan (178 languages)
#
Oto-Manguean (174 languages) (number disputed;
Lyle Campbell includes only 27)
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Austro-Asiatic (169 languages)
#
Sepik-Ramu (100 languages) (validity disputed)
#
Tai-Kadai (76 languages)
#
Tupi languages Tupi (76 languages)
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Dravidian languages Dravidian (73 languages)
#
Mayan languages Mayan (69 languages)
Language families (spoken)
In the following, each "bulleted" item is a known or suspected language family. The geographic headings over them are meant solely as a tool for grouping families into collections more comprehensible than an unstructured list of the dozen or two of independent families. Geographic relationship is convenient for that purpose, but these headings are ''not'' a suggestion of any "super-families" phylogenetically relating the families named.
Africa and southwest Asia
Image:African languages.png right|200px
#
Afro-Asiatic languages (formerly Hamito-Semitic)
#
Niger-Congo languages (sometimes Niger-Kordofanian)
#
Nilo-Saharan languages
#
Khoe languages (part of
Khoisan languages Khoisan proposal)
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Ta'a-!Kwi languages (part of Khoisan)
Europe, and North Asia north, West Asia west, and south Asia
#
Indo-European languages
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Dravidian languages
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Northwest Caucasian languages (often included in
North Caucasian languages North Caucasian)
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Northeast Caucasian languages (often included in North Caucasian)
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Hurro-Urartian languages (
extinct language extinct, perhaps related to Northeast Caucasian)
#
South Caucasian languages Kartvelian (South Caucasian)
#
Altaic languages
#
Uralic languages
#
Yukaghir languages (perhaps related to Uralic)
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Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages
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Yeniseian languages (perhaps related to Burushaski)
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Andamanese languages (perhaps two families)
East Asia, Southeast Asia and the Pacific
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Austroasiatic languages
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Austronesian languages Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) languages
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Hmong-Mien languages
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Japonic languages (or
Fuyu languages)
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Sino-Tibetan languages
#
Tai-Kadai languages
Papuan languages
#
East Papuan languages Baining languages
#
Border languages (New Guinea) Border languages
#
East Papuan languages Central Solomons languages
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East Bird's Head-Sentani languages
#
Eastern Trans-Fly languages ''(one in Australia)''
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Geelvink Bay languages East Geelvink Bay languages
#
Lakes Plain languages ''(upper Mamberamo River)''
#
Left May-Kwomtari languages
#
Mairasi languages
#
Nimboran languages
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East Papuan languages North Bougainville languages
#
Piawi languages
#
Ramu-Lower Sepik languages
#
Senagi languages
#
Sepik languages
#
Sko languages Skou languages
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East Papuan languages South Bougainville languages
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South-Central Papuan languages
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Tor-Kwerba languages
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Torricelli languages
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West Papuan languages
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Yuat languages
Australian Aboriginal languages
#
Bunaban languages
#
Daly languages
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Limilngan languages
#
Djeragan languages
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Nyulnyulan languages
#
Wororan languages
#
Mindi languages
#
Arnhem Land languages (3 families and 2 isolates)
#
Gunwinyguan languages
#
Pama-Nyungan languages
North America
Image:Langs N.Amer.png thumb|Distribution of language families and isolates north of Mexico at first contact.
: '''''See main article,
Native American languages'''''
#
Algic languages (incl.
Algonquian languages) (29)
#
Alsean languages (2)
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Caddoan languages (5)
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Chimakuan languages (2)
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Chinookan Chinookan languages (3)
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Chumashan languages (6)
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Comecrudan languages (3)
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Coosan languages (2)
#
Eskimo-Aleut languages (7)
#
Guacurian languages (a.k.a. Waikurian) (8)
#
Iroquoian languages (11)
#
Kalapuya Kalapuyan languages (3)
#
Kiowa-Tanoan languages (7)
#
Maidu Maiduan languages (4)
#
Mayan languages (
North America &
Central America) (31)
#
Muskogean languages (6)
#
Na-Dené languages (40)
#
Oto-Manguean languages (
North America &
Central America) (27)
#
Palaihnihan languages (2)
#
Plateau Penutian languages (a.k.a. Shahapwailutan) (4)
#
Pomoan languages (7)
#
Salishan languages (23)
#
Shastan languages (4)
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Siouan languages (16)
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Tequistlatecan languages (3)
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Totonacan languages (2)
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Tsimshian Tsimshian languages (2)
#
Utian languages (12)
#
Uto-Aztecan languages (31)
#
Wakashan languages (6)
#
Wintu Wintuan languages (4)
#
Yokutsan languages (3)
#
Yukian languages (2)
#
Yuman-Cochimà languages (11)
Central America and South America
: '''''See main article,
Native American languages'''''
#
Alacalufan languages (
South America) (2)
#
Algic languages (
North American &
Central America) (29)
#
Arauan languages (
South America) (8)
#
Araucanian languages (
South America) (2)
#
Arawakan languages (
South America,
Caribbean) (73)
#
Arutani-Sape languages (
South America) (2)
#
Aymaran languages (
South America) (3)
#
Barbacoan languages (
South America) (7)
#
Cahuapanan languages (
South America) (2)
#
Carib languages (
South America) (29)
#
Chapacura-Wanham languages (
South America) (5)
#
Chibchan languages (
Central America &
South America) (22)
#
Choco languages (
South America) (10)
#
Chon languages (
South America) (2)
#
Comecrudan languages (
North America &
Central America) (3)
#
Guacurian languages (a.k.a. Waikurian) (8)
#
Harakmbet languages (
South America) (2)
#
Jicaquean languages (
Central America)
#
Jivaroan languages (
South America) (4)
#
Katukinan languages (
South America) (3)
#
Lencan languages (
Central America)
#
Lule-Vilela languages (
South America) (1)
#
Macro-Ge languages (
South America) (32)
#
Maku languages (
South America) (6)
#
Mascoian languages (
South America) (5)
#
Mataco-Guaicuru languages (
South America) (11)
#
Mayan languages (
Central America) (31)
#
Misumalpan languages (
Central America)
#
Mixe-Zoquean languages (
Central America) (19)
#
Mosetenan languages (
South America) (1)
#
Mura languages (
South America) (1)
#
Na-Dene languages Na-Dené languages (
North America &
Central America) (40)
#
Nambiquaran languages (
South America) (5)
#
Oto-Manguean languages (
North America &
Central America) (27)
#
Paezan languages (
South America) (1)
#
Panoan languages (
South America) (30)
#
Peba-Yaguan languages (
South America) (2)
#
Quechuan languages (
South America) (46)
#
Salivan languages (
South America) (2)
#
Tacanan languages (
South America) (6)
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Tequistlatecan languages (
Central America) (3)
#
Totonacan languages (
Central America) (2)
#
Tucanoan languages (
South America) (25)
#
Tupi languages (
South America) (70)
#
Uru-Chipaya languages (
South America) (2)
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Uto-Aztecan languages (
North America &
Central America) (31)
#
Witotoan languages (
South America) (6)
#
Xincan languages (
Central America)
#
Yanomam languages (
South America) (4)
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Yuman-Cochimi languages (
North America &
Central America) (11)
#
Zamucoan languages (
South America) (2)
#
Zaparoan languages (
South America) (7)
Language isolates (oral languages)
Central & South America
#Aikaná ''(Brazil: Rondônia)
#
Andoque language Andoque ''(Colombia, Peru)''
#Betoi ''(Columbia)''
#
Camsá language Camsá ''(Columbia)''
#Canichana ''(Bolivia)''
#
Cayubaba language ''(Bolivia)''
#Cofán ''(Colombia, Ecuador)''
#Cuitlatec ''(Mexico: Guerrero)'' [extinct]
#
Huaorani language Huaorani (aka Sabela, Waorani, Waodani) ''(Ecuador, Peru)''
#Huave ''(Mexico: Oaxaca)''
#Irantxe ''(Brazil: Mato Grosso)''
#
Itonama language Itonama ''(Bolivia)''
#Jotà ''(Venezuela)''
#Koayá ''(Brazil: Rondônia)
#Mapudungu ''(Chile, Argentina)''
#Movima ''(Bolivia)''
#
Munichi ''(Peru)''
#Nambiquaran ''(Brazil: Mato Grosso)''
#Omurano ''(Peru)''
#Otà ''(Brazil: São Paulo)'' [extinct]
#
Pankararú language Pankararú ''(Brazil: Pernambuco)''
#
Puelche language Puelche ''(Chile)''
#
Puinave language Puinave ''(Columbia)''
#Puquina ''(Bolivia)'' [extinct]
#Seri ''(Mexico: Sonora)''
#
Tarascan (a.k.a. Purépecha) ''(Mexico: Michoacán)''
#Taushiro ''(Peru)''
#Tequiraca ''(Peru)''
#
Ticuna language Ticuna ''(Colombia, Peru, Brazil)''
#
Warao language Warao ''(Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela)''
#
Yámana language Yámana (a.k.a Yagan) ''(Chile)''
#
Yuracare language Yuracare ''(Bolivia)''
#Yuri ''(Colombia, Brazil)''
#Yurumanguà ''(Columbia)''
North America
#
Chimariko ''(US: California)''
#
Chitimacha ''(US: Lousiania)''
#
Coahuilteco ''(US: Texas; northeast Mexico)''
#
Esselen ''(US: California)''
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Haida ''(Canada: British Columbia; US: Alaska)''
#
Karankawa ''(US: Texas)''
#
Karok (a.k.a. Karuk) ''(US: California)''
#
Keres language Keres ''(US: New Mexico)''
#
Kootenai (tribe) Kootenai ''(Canada: British Columbia; US: Idaho, Montana)''
#
Natchez (people) Natchez ''(US: Mississippi, Louisiana)'' (sometimes linked to Muskogean)
#
Salinan ''(US: California)''
#
Siuslaw (tribe) Siuslaw ''(US: Oregon)''
#
Takelma ''(US: Oregon)''
#
Timucua ''(US: Florida, Georgia)''
#
Tonkawa ''(US: Texas)''
#
Tunica (language) Tunica ''(US: Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas)''
#
Washo language Washo ''(US: California, Nevada)''
#
Yana ''(US: California)''
#
Yuchi language Yuchi ''(US: Georgia, Oklahoma)''
#
Zuni language Zuni (a.k.a. Shiwi) ''(US: New Mexico)''
Australia
#
Enindhilyagwa language Enindhilyagwa (AKA Andilyaugwa, Anindilyakwa)
#
Laragiya language Laragiya
#
Minkin language Minkin [extinct; perhaps a member of Yiwaidjan or Tankic]
#
Ngurmbur language Ngurmbur (perhaps a member of Macro-Pama-Nyungan)
#
Tiwi language Tiwi (Melville and Bathurst Islands)
New Guinea
#
Abinomn language (Baso, Foia) ''(north Irian)''
#
Anêm language Anêm ''(New Britain)''
#
Ata language Ata (Pele-Ata, Wasi) ''(New Britain)''
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Busa language ''(Sandaun)''
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Isirawa language ''(north Irian)''
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Kol language ''(New Britain)''
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Kuot language (Panaras) ''(New Ireland)''
#
Massep language
#
Kwomtari-Baibai languages Pyu language
#
Sulka language ''(New Britain)''
#
Taiap language (Gapun) ''(Sepik)''
#
Yalë language (Nagatman) ''(Sandaun)''
#
Yawa languages Yawa ''(Geelvink Bay)''
#
Yélî Dnye language Yélî Dnye'' (Yele) ''(Rennell Island)''
#
Yuri language (Karkar) ''(Sandaun)''
Asia
#
Ainu language or languages ''(Russia, Japan)'' (like
Arabic language Arabic or
Japanese language Japanese, the diversity within Ainu is large enough that some consider it to be perhaps up to a dozen languages while others consider it a single language with high dialectal diversity)
#
Burushaski language Burushaski ''(Pakistan, India)'' (sometimes linked to
Yeniseian languages Yeniseian)
#
Kalto or Nahali ''(India)'' (sometimes linked to Munda)
#
Korean language Korean ''(North & South Korea, China, USA)'' (sometimes linked to
Altaic languages Altaic)
#
Nivkh language Nivkh or Gilyak ''(Russia)'' (sometimes linked to
Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages Chukchi-Kamchatkan)
#
Sumerian language Sumerian ''(Iraq)'' [extinct]
#
Elamite ''(Iran)'' [extinct] (sometimes linked to
Dravidian language Dravidian)
#
Hattic ''(Turkey)'' [extinct] (sometimes linked to
Northwest Caucasian languages Northwest Caucasian)
Africa
#
Hadza language Hadza ''(Tanzania)''
#
Sandawe language Sandawe ''(Tanzania)''
#
Ju languages Juu ''(Angola, Botswana, Namibia)''
#
‡Hõã language ‡Qhôã ''(Botswana)'' (may be related to Juu)
(all sometimes included under
Khoisan languages Khoisan)
Europe
#
Basque language Basque ''(Spain, France)'' (related to extinct Aquitanian)
#
Etruscan language Etruscan ''(Italy)'' [extinct; part of the poorly attested Tyrrhenian family]
Unclassified languages
Many languages are too poorly attested to classify. Many of them are extinct and never will be known well enough to classify. Some may have been isolates; others were likely members of established families.
Europe
#
Iberian language Iberian ''(Spain)'' [extinct]
#
Tartessian language Tartessian ''(Spain, Portugal)'' [extinct]
Africa
#
Shabo language Shabo
#
Meroitic language Meroitic [extinct]
Asia
#
Quti language Quti [extinct]
#
Kaskian language Kaskian [extinct]
#
Cimmerian language Cimmerian [extinct]
South America
#Baenan ''(Brazil)'' [extinct]
#Culle ''(Peru)'' [extinct]
#Cunza ''(Chile, Bolivia, Argentina)'' [extinct]
#Gamela ''(Brazil: Maranhão)'' [extinct]
#Gorgotoqui ''(Bolivia)'' [extinct]
#Huamoé ''(Brazil: Pernambuco)'' [extinct]
#Kukurá ''(Brazil: Mato Grosso)'' [extinct]
#Natú ''(Brazil: Pernambuco)'' [extinct]
#Tarairiú ''(Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte)''
#
Tuxá language Tuxá ''(Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco)'' [extinct]
#Xokó ''(Brazil: Alagoas, Pernambuco)'' [extinct]
#Xukurú ''(Brazil: Pernambuco, ParaÃba)'' [extinct]
North America
#
Adai ''(US: Louisiana, Texas)'' [extinct]
#Alagüilac ''(Guatemala)''
#Aranama-Tamique ''(US: Texas)'' [extinct]
#
Atakapa language Atakapa ''(US: Louisiana, Texas)'' [extinct]
#
Beothuk language Beothuk ''(Canada: Newfoundland)'' [extinct]
#
Calusa ''(US: Florida)'' [extinct]
#
Cayuse ''(US: Oregon, Washington)'' [extinct]
#
Cotoname ''(northeast Mexico; US: Texas)'' [extinct]
#Maratino ''(northeastern Mexico)'' [extinct]
#Naolan ''(Mexico: Tamaulipas)'' [extinct]
#Quinigua ''(northeast Mexico)'' [extinct]
#Solano ''(northeast Mexico; US: Texas)'' [extinct]
Sign languages
:''See also
List of sign languages.''
Although deaf
sign languages have emerged naturally in deaf communities alongside or among spoken languages, they are unrelated to spoken languages and have different grammatical structures at their core. A group of sign "languages" known as
manually coded languages are more properly understood as signed ''modes'' of spoken languages, and therefore belong to the language family of the spoken language; one example of such a signed language is
Warlpiri Sign Language.
There has been very little historical linguistic research on sign languages, and few attempts to determine genetic relationships between sign languages, other than simple comparison of
lexicon lexical data and some discussion about whether certain sign languages are dialects of a language or languages of a family.
Auslan,
NZSL and
BSL are usually considered to belong to a language family known as
BANZSL, and
Japanese Sign Language,
Taiwanese Sign Language and
Korean Sign Language are thought to be members of a
Japanese Sign Language family. There are a number of sign languages that emerged from
Old French Sign Language and might tentatively be considered a part of a
French Sign Language Family:
French Sign Language,
Quebec Sign Language,
American Sign Language,
Irish Sign Language,
Dutch Sign Language,
Flemish Sign Language,
Belgian-French Sign Language,
Mexican Sign Language and others;
Bolivian Sign Language is sometimes considered a dialect of American Sign Language, and thus would also belong with this group. Other languages, such as
Nicaraguan Sign Language,
Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language, and
Providence Island Sign Language are known to be isolates.
Creole languages, pidgins, mixed languages, and trade languages
*
American Indian Pidgin English
*
Basque-Algonquian Pidgin (a.k.a. Micmac-Basque Pidgin, Souriquois)
*
Bislamic languages
**
Australian Kriol language Australian Creole (a.k.a. Kriol)
**
Bislama
**
Pijin
**
Tok Pisin
**
Torres Strait Creole (a.k.a. Broken, Cape York Creole, Lockhart Creole)
*
Broken Oghibbeway (a.k.a. Broken Ojibwa)
*
Broken Slavey (a.k.a. Slavey Jargon, Broken Slavé)
*
Callahuaya (a.k.a. Machaj-Juyai, Kallawaya)
*
Carib Pidgin (a.k.a. Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin, Ndjuka-Trio)
*
Carib Pidgin-Arawak Mixed Language
*
Catalangu
*
Chabacano - A Spanish creole spoken in South of the Philippines.
*
Chinook Jargon
*
Delaware Jargon (a.k.a. Pidgin Delaware)
*
Eskimo Trade Jargon (a.k.a. Herschel Island Eskimo Pidgin, Ship's Jargon)
*
Greenlandic Eskimo Pidgin
*
Guajiro-Spanish
*
Güegüence-Nicarao
*
Haida Jargon
*
Haitian creole
*
Hawaiian Creole English
*
Hiri Motu
*
Hudson Strait Pidgin
*
International Sign or Gestuno -
constructed language
*
Inuktitut-English Pidgin
*
Jargonized Powhatan
*
Kutenai Jargon
*
Labrador Eskimo Pidgin (a.k.a. Labrador Inuit Pidgin)
*
Lingua Franca Apalachee
*
Lingua Franca Creek
*
Lingua franca
*
Lingua Geral do Sul (a.k.a. Lingua Geral Paulista, Tupà Austral)
*
Loucheux Jargon (a.k.a. Jargon Loucheux)
*
Media Lengua
*
Mednyj Aleut (a.k.a. Copper Island Aleut, Medniy Aleut, CIA)
*
Michif (a.k.a. French Cree, Métis, Metchif, Mitchif, Métchif)
*
Mobilian Jargon (a.k.a. Mobilian Trade Jargon, Chickasaw-Chocaw Trade Language, Yamá
*
Montagnais Pidgin Basque (a.k.a. Pidgin Basque-Montagnais)
*
Nheengatú (a.k.a. Lingua Geral Amazônica, Lingua Boa, Lingua BrasÃlica, Lingua Geral do Norte)
*
Norfuk language Norfuk
*
Nootka Jargon
*
Ocaneechi
*
Pitcairnese language Pitkern
*
Pidgin Massachusett
*
Portuguese-based creole languages
*
Rusnorsk
*
Sango (language) Sango
Proposed language stocks
{|
| valign="top" |
*
Alarodian languages Alarodian
*
Almosan (= Sapir's ''Algonkin-Wakashan'')
*
Almosan-Keresiouan
*
Algonkian-Gulf
*
Amerind languages Amerind
**
Central Amerind
*
Andean languages
*
Aztec-Tanoan
*
Austric languages Austric
*
Chibchan-Paezan
*
Coahuiltecan
*
Dene-Caucasian languages Dene-Caucasian
*
Equatorial languages
*
Eurasiatic languages Eurasiatic
*
Gulf languages
*
Hokan languages
*
Hokan-Siouan
*
Ibero-Caucasian languages Ibero-Caucasian
*
Indo-Pacific languages Indo-Pacific
| valign="top" |
*
Keresiouan
*
Kongo-Saharan languages Kongo-Saharan
*
Macro-Carib
*
Macro-Ge
*
Macro-Mayan
*
Macro-Panoan
*
Macro-Siouan languages Macro-Siouan
*
Macro-Tucanoan
*
Mosan
*
Na-Dene (Sapir's)
*
Nostratic languages Nostratic
*
Nostratic-Amerind
*
Penutian languages Penutian
*
Proto-Pontic Pontic
*
Proto-World language Proto-World
*
Quechumaran
*
Ural-Altaic languages Ural-Altaic
*
Wappo-Yukian
|}
See also
*
Endangered language
*
Extinct language
*
Constructed language
External links
-
http://www.ethnologue.com/
web.asp
*http://gebaren.ugent.be
*http://www.elanguages.info - articles, products, & info about language learning online
-
Number of speakers by language
Bibliography
*Boas, Franz. (1911). ''Handbook of American Indian languages'' (Vol. 1). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
*Boas, Franz. (1922). ''Handbook of American Indian languages'' (Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
*Boas, Franz. (1933). ''Handbook of American Indian languages'' (Vol. 3). Native American legal materials collection, title 1227. Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin.
*Campbell, Lyle. (1997). ''American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
*Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979). ''The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment''. Austin: University of Texas Press.
*Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). ''Languages''. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-1604-8774-9.
*Goddard, Ives. (1999). ''Native languages and language families of North America'' (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institute). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). ISBN 0-8032-9271-6.
*Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). ''Ethnologue: Languages of the world'' (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com).
*Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966). ''The Languages of Africa'' (2nd ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University.
*Mithun, Marianne. (1999). ''The languages of Native North America''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
*Ross, Malcom. (2005). ''Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages.'' In: Andrew Pawley, Robert Attenborough, Robin Hide and Jack Golson, eds, ''Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples [http://rspas.anu.edu.au/linguistics/mdr/Papuan%20Pasts%20paper.pdf]
*Ruhlen, Merritt. (1987). ''A guide to the world's languages''. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
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*Voegelin, C. F.; & Voegelin, F. M. (1977). ''Classification and index of the world's languages''. New York: Elsevier.
Category:Language families *
Category:Lists of languages *
af:Taalfamilie
an:Familias lingüisticas
ar:عائلات لغوية
ast:Familia llingüÃstica
bn:à¦à¦¾à¦·à¦¾ পরিবারসমূহ
br:Familhoù yezh
cs:Seznam jazyků a jazykových rodin
da:Sprogfamilie
de:Sprachfamilie
el:Γλωσσική οικογÎνεια
eo:Lingva familio
es:Familias de lenguas
fr:Langues par famille
hu:Nyelvcsalád
ia:Familias linguistic
id:Rumpun bahasa
it:Famiglie linguistiche
ja:語�
ko:어족
lt:Kalbų šeimos
nl:Taalfamilies
nn:Språkfamiliar
no:Liste over språkfamilier
pl:Rodzina językowa
pt:FamÃlia de lÃnguas
ro:Familii de limbi
ru:ГенетичеÑ?каÑ? клаÑ?Ñ?ификациÑ? Ñ?зыков
simple:Language families and languages
sl:Jezikovne družine in jeziki
ta:மொழிகள�ம�, மொழிக� க�ட�ம�பங�கள�ம�
th:ตระà¸?ูลขà¸à¸‡à¸ าษา
tl:Pamilya ng mga wika
tr:Dil aileleri
zh:è¯è¨€ç³»å±žåˆ†ç±»
see
Template:Infobox Language family
*** Shopping-Tip: Language family
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